evolution of educational computer software, The

An avalanche of educational software has nearly obliterated the archaic domain of schools. The new landscape, shorn of mechanical apparatus, unites the measured, millisecond rapidity of electrons with the adventitious, near-immaculate intuition of computers. And on this union, perhaps, may rest the best hope yet for a renascence in learning. To be sure, the collaboration is a forced marriage, but its features, like newlyformed promontories, rising from the mist, deserve scrutiny.

This paper, then, addresses educational software and its earliest entries - those made for mainframe computers, and follows its discursive growth to that of the personal computer and its runic lustihood. Those products that exploit the computer chip to its fullest, like interactive, hypermedia authoring software, stand out. But other, more mundane products, like spreadsheets, word processing programs and databases, also have their place in the tableau.

The Historical context

The third great revolution - computers and high technology (the first being agriculture and the second the industrial revolution) - has already fundamentally altered life for the better, at least for people in the post-industrialized world. This dramatic shift, as complex and challenging as it is, is really only an elaboration of the Babylonian-developed abacus (The New Encyclopedia Britanica, 1992). The abacus, in use for several millennia, automated arithmetic calculation. That the development of the abacus into its electronic counterpart took one or two millennia points out the sea change of scientific and technical innovation that was needed for such growth.

Educational Software for Mainframe Computers

Computer software that is designed for educational purposes, and that is run on personal computers, is only a recent phenomenon. Nevertheless, it promises such a revolution in teaching that educators are just beginning to grasp its significance. Mainframe computers appear to be on the way out - and with mainframes their top-heavy, complex and expensive applications (Marsh II, 1993). As the mainframe use proliferated (during the 1960's and 1970's), educational software developed for it took the form of large, octopus-like organisms, that were accessible only from dumb terminals that offered little or no flexibility. Vaskevitch (1993) also notes "how primitive and limited the terminal interface" for mainframes was.

"Plato"

Plato (programmed logic for automatic teaching operation) was created in the 1960's. White and Hubbard (1988) report that in its original heyday, Plato provided 7000 hours of instruction in 150 subjects in a nationwide school network. Plato at first was programmed to run on mainframes, but later evolved to a personal computer program. Due to its high cost and the need for computer support personnel, however, Plato was not widely used in classrooms across the U.S.

Another development of the 1960's was Computer Curriculum Corp. (CCC). In their software, students got immediate answers to their entries before they could proceed to higher levels. Moreover, CCC's software kept records on the performance of each student (White and Hubbard, 1988).

Logo

A programming language called Logo was ushered in during the 1960's. Pfaffenberger (1993) writes that it "provides an environment in which children can develop their reasoning and problem-solving skills." It has been used to teach programming to children. White and Hubbard further state that it is heavily used in "elementary school computing programs " Logo supports graphics and a feature called "turtle".

Coursewriter

Another product of the 1960's - programmed learning - in its earliest version made a rigid presentation of subject material. It emphasized skills, not critical thinking. As it was modified later, it incorporated interactive and multimedia features. Finally, IBM then offered a programming language called Coursewriter. This software permitted teachers to write course outlines, hand-outs and tests on mainframe computers. Coursewriter (in later versions II and III) developed into an authoring language for computer-assisted instruction, as reported by Reeves (1986). The term "authoring language" is described later in this piece, where it is referred to as: "hypermedia authoring software".

Factors Limiting Use of Educational Software on Mainframes

Among the factors working against the school use of mainframe computers were: 1. exorbitant cost; 2. the limited number of software; 3. educational software was still difficult to translate into lesson plans and class use; and 4., teachers had little experience using such software (White and Hubbard, 1988).

Educational Software Designed for Personal Computers

The advent of personal computers in the 1980's made school use of software more practicable, affordable and beneficial. Computer assisted instruction (CAI), computer managed instruction (CMI) and computer-based education (CBE) emerged as methods of computer use in schools (White and Hubbard, 1988). Computer assisted instruction (CAI) encompasses the following types: drill and practice, tutorial, simulation/games, problem-solving, tools, reference, hypermedia authoring, expert systems, instructional learning systems, programming and communications.

Computer managed instruction (CMI), less heralded than CAI, does administrative tasks, like maintaining tests and records, providing material on instructional guidance and resource availability. Computer-based education (CBE) combines the two previous groups into an allencompassing hybrid.

Characteristics of Educational Software

Each of the computer assisted instruction (CAI) types provides some of the following software characteristics. 1. The material is presented in a varying number of computer screens, and may include sound, text, graphics, full-motion video and even voice input. 2. Interactive software tracks a student's progress, and repeatedly presents the same-level material to slow learners. 3. Conversely, links are provided to let brighter students jump ahead. 4. Random-access techniques enable hypertext links, allowing students to branch to any available material. 5. Software prints reports to the teacher on student performance. 6. Often, a "Help" feature provides explanations on how the software functions. 7. Sometimes, special screens on student performance and option settings are password-protected to allow entry only to teachers. At this point, a review of the various types of CAI software follows.

Drill and Practice

Drill and practice programs began as basic instruction on such topics as multiplication tables, for example. Over the years their power, sophistication and subject coverage have grown. Drill and practice software is useful for slow learners, because it can re-present material virtually ad infinitum, thus saving the teacher time to spend on the rest of the class (Marsh II, 1993).

Tutorial

Tutorial software offers the best hope, in this writer's opinion, for computer-based individualized learning. The software, often with multimedia attributes like full-motion video and sound, is written to tutor slow to fast students. Usually, these programs furnish teachers with some breakdown on student progress. Marsh II (1993) states that "tutorial programs in the military have been remarkably effective - learning is faster and retention is greater."

Simulation

Simulation software artificially creates a real-life experience and this artificial real-life can be extremely interesting and effective. The approach is anything but rote, but (especially for scientific and technical subjects) draws on and augments the knowledge of participants. It can be used for single or group players. The number of commercially-available simulation programs is burgeoning. As the image resolution and full-page display capabilities of computer monitors improve, the "realness", if you will, of simulations will further improve (Marsh II, 1993). The product that simulates the Klondike Gold Rush does well pictorially with animation, although admittedly the educational component is not altogether apparent.

Problem-Solving

Problem-solving software tests critical thinking and judgement, often without looking for a "right answer." One product, for example, centers upon the accidental breaking of a teacher's vase by two students who had wanted to hide her pencils. The player is first prompted to select (on the computer) four goals in order of importance. The goals are: 1. always be honest and tell the truth; 2. maintain good relations with peers; 3. protect yourself; and 4. be well liked by friends. Then, repeatedly throughout the play, the player is prompted to select an option. For example: 1. tell the teacher that you didn't break the vase; 2. say that you didn't see who broke it; 3. say that the other boy broke it; and 4. say nothing. Then at the end of the program, a player is graded by the computer on how well his or her answers accorded with the goal selection. The program also allows a group of students to play, with each student representing a separate "goal". The user manual states that the goal of the product is to present the player with the consequences of his or her actions.

Tools, and Collaborative Writing Tool software encompasses a huge collection of CAI programs. Besides the usual word processing, database and spreadsheet products, others exist, like CD-ROM and on-line databases, graphics, drafting, "painting", text analyses, spelling checkers, calculators and outlines. Marsh (1993) cites some provocative uses of tools. He mentions collaborative writing - a writing exercise attended by a group. "They share files, electronic mail, bulletin boards and network dialogues," he writes. He also cites a case where students extrapolated immigration patterns after having entered data on Irish immigration to New York City (supplied by their teacher) into an AppleWorks database.

Spreadsheets

Spreadsheets, by their very definition, lend themselves almost to any use where a number series and formulas are needed. One class used spreadsheets to transform seemingly deadening paper-and-pencil exercises into challenging work. They first entered geographic-related numbers and formulas into a spreadsheet. Second, they calculated the mileage and time involved in traveling from their school to other parts of the country and to outer space. Another class elucidated socieconomic factors from teacher-supplied voting statistics (broken down by region, ethnic affiliation, wealth and other indices), after the data was entered in a spreadsheet (Marsh II, 1993).

Hypermedia Authoring

Hypermedia authoring software enables the creation - by a teacher or student - of a multimedia, interactive presentation on a computer. Claris's HyperCard, IBM's LinkWay and Borland's ObjectPal each provide this facility (Dyrli and Kinnaman, 1995). Other CAI Products

Other CAI software types include: reference works, like CD-ROM encyclopedias, dictionaries, atlases and art museum collections; games that offer educational worth; telecommunications, like the Internet; instructional learning systems; expert systems; programming; and distance learning. The evidence strongly suggests that classroom use of educational software makes the subject matter more interesting. It also renders the students better prepared for the computerized work world.

Success Maker, Crossword Creator, and Pre-writing Software

One school district - Hartford, Connecticut --provides a kindergarten-through-12th grade software program called "Success Maker," with a personal computer, to virtually every student (Judson, 1995). Schafer and Behymer (1992) report the classroom use of a crossword puzzle software program called "Crossword Creator." Typically used in vocational high schools, this product allows a student to create a crossword puzzle, using words and concepts that apply to a specific course. They write that using this package forces a student to think in depth about a subject. Using the software "reinforces spelling, provides practice in using reference materials, tests comprehension, stimulates discussion; and helps them learn technical terms." Moreover, it's fun to do. Storeygard, Simmons, Stumpf and Pavloglou (1993) write about using prewriting software in remedial writing courses at a middle school. Students enter their first, jumbled and unedited thoughts through the software into a computer.

Automating the Past or the Present?

Horn (1994) opposes the use of educational software, however, to "automate the past." Rather than using drill and practice and word processing software, he advocates the use of desktop publishing packages, graphics, CDROM encyclopedias, and "Children's Writing Center" - a program that combines word processing with presentation graphics.

Classroom Usage of Software

Ely (1993) reports on the types of software used in those elementary and secondary schools that had computers in their classrooms. Tools show 95% use, instructional (including tutorial and drill and practice) 89%, problem-solving 87%, programming 84%, games and simulations 81%, graphics 81%, communications 49% and multimedia 25%.

The Future

This writer is of the opinion that future educational software will combine many types, for example tools, tutorial, simulation and problem solving, into one package. Further, that the local- or wide-area networking of school computers will offer many more types of software to classes. As the prices of hardware and software continue to drop, computers will become more of a necessity in schools, than a luxury.

References

Dyrli, Odvard Egil., Kinnaman, Daniel E. (1995). Part 1: Technology in Education: Getting the Upper Hand. Technology & Leaming, IS(4), 38-43.

Ely, Donald P. (1993). Computers in Schools and Universities in the United States of America. Educational Technology, 33(9), 53-57.

Horn, Royal Van. (1994). Power Tools: Automating the Past or the Future. Phi Delta Kappan, 76(4), 336337.

Judson, George. (1995). Harford Schools Enter New World. The New York Times, March 9, 1995, B6. Marsh II, George E. (1993). Computers: Literacy and Learning: A Primer For Administrators. Corwin Press, Inc., Newbury Park, California.

The New Encyclopedia Britannica, 15th Edition. (1992). Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc., Chicago, Illinois. 1,6.

Pfaffenberger, Bryan, Ph.D. (1993). Que's Computer User's Dictionary 4th Edition. Que, Indianapolis, Indiana.

Reeves, Thomas C. (1986). Computer-Assisted Instruction: Authoring Languages. Eric Digest, #ED281504.

Schafer, John C., Behymer, Jo. (1992). Cross Purposes: Computer-Generated Crossword Puzzles Link Popular Pastime With Technical Learning. Vocational Education Journal, 67(5), 36-37, 47.

Storeygard, Judy., Simmons, Rebecca., Stumpf, Maura., Pavloglou, Evangela. (1993). Making Computers Work For Students with Special Needs. Teaching Exceptional Children, 26(1), 22-24.

Vaskevitch, David. (1993). ClientlServer Strategies: A Survival Guide for Corporate Reengineers. IDG Books Worldwide, San Mateo, California Page 128.

White, Charles S., Hubbard, Guy. (1988). Computers And Education. Macmillan Publishing Company, New York.

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