role of reinforcement in self-monitoring, The

Self-monitoring has widespread applicability as an intervention procedure. The investigator aimed to replicate and extend the Handleman and Harris's (1984) findings of positive relationship between reinforcement and play, by using self-monitoring intervention procedure with children with autism. This paper further examines the appropriateness for African children of the selfmonitoring intervention procedure. The results of the effects of self-monitoring by undergraduate tutors using the frequency of reinforcement and play are reported. Tentative comparisons of the African data with those of previously reported American children of the same age indicated that the children sampled from Nigeria were more similar in terms of greater play behavior demonstrated by each child during the self-monitoring condition. Recommendations for future research are made.

Key Words: Reinforcement, autism, self-monitoring, play.

People's confidence in the correctness of their decisions is a topic that has intrigued service providers and caregivers since the early periods of this century (Cutler & Wolfe, 1989).Self-monitoring is a dispositional construct that shows a direct relationship to both confidence and accuracy in social cognition tasks. It follows that no understanding of the nature of selfmonitoring `could possibly be complete without some understanding of the ties that bind on-task behavior and self-monitoring' (Snyder, 1979). The earlier studies of self-monitoring have tended to adopt the view that self-monitoring has widespread applicability as both an assessment and intervention procedures. Self-monitoring refers to the systematic observation and recording of one's own behavior. For example, Shapiro and Cole, (1993) suggest that `as an assessment procedure, self-monitoring may be an effective method for gathering information on specific child behaviors. It may also serve as a means for behavior change.' When self-monitoring is employed as an intervention procedure, the primary concern is to maximize the potential for reactive effects. Many variables appear to be related to these effects, in particular, selecting subjects motivated to change their behavior, targeting positive or desirable responses in contrast to undesirable behaviors, providing training in accurate self-monitoring, setting goals and providing reinforcement and feedback contingent on responding. Self-monitoring may also be used on an ongoing basis as a means of evaluating the effects of an intervention procedure (cf. Shapiro & Cole, 1993). Another view has been that selfmonitoring may increase academic skills, test performance and on-task behavior (Harris, 1986; Studwell & Moxley, 1984). To this end, numerous studies have demonstrated that the activity of self-monitoring may result in reactive effects, or changes in the behavior being monitored (Blick & Test,1987; Briggs & Cheek,1986; Harris, 1986; Handleman and Harris,1984; 1986; Kapadia & Fantuzzo, 1988; McCurdy & Shapiro, 1988; Ollendick, 1981; Snyder, 1974; 1979). Not only does self-monitoring often change behavior, but the change is almost always in the desired direction (Shapiro & Cole, 1993). Research has shown that self-monitoring may involve assessing and recording single or multiple responses. For example, as Shapiro and Cole (1993) argued, behavior targeted for self-monitoring may range from simple, discrete events such as single hand raises or number of tasks completed through more complex chains of responses, which might include antecedents and consequences of behavior. Following a written language assignment, a student may be asked to monitor the number of words written, number of words spelled correctly, number of correct punctuations marks, number of correct capitalizations, and so forth. Other dimensions to consider in selecting behaviors to be self-monitored are the timing and schedule recording. Behaviors can be recorded immediately after their occurrence or after some delay (such as the end of class, the period, or school day). Likewise, use of event recording (each instance of behavior is noted) or a partial interval time sampling method (occurrence within interval regardless of frequency) could be employed. Results from each of these approaches to recording data can potentially affect the outcome. The theme of self-monitoring being associated with decrease in undesirable behavior and increase in on-task behavior has also been taken up by Christie and his associates, who claimed that, the signaled self-recording produced decreases in inattentive and inappropriate classroom behavior, and increased on-task behavior for all subjects. Christie Hiss and Lozanoff (1984) found this out, when they taught children labeled as hyperactive to selfrecord a variety of appropriate and inappropriate behaviors. This is explicitly acknowledged by Studwell and Moxley (1984), while Fowler (1986) argued that using self-monitoring technique, it would be possible to maintain decreases in disruptive behavior observed using a peer-monitoring procedure in a special kindergarten class. In a similar vein, Sugai and Rowe (1984) was able to decrease the out-of-seat behavior of a mentally handicapped boy by using self-recording procedure in the absence of systematic consequences for in-seat and out-of-seat behavior. In reviewing the literature on self-monitoring only limited research has explored the basis of self-monitoring of African children. Self-monitoring has been used to facilitate maintenance and generalization of positive effects observed during social skills training. Akande (1996) partially replicated and extended the Kiburz, Miller, and Morrow (1984) with ten children. Results supported previous research that self-monitoring effectively increased the occurrence of greeting and thanking skills.

However, despite the effectiveness and usefulness of self-monitoring with children and adolescents who have a variety of handicapping conditions, at various settings, many of the critical factors concerning the accuracy and reactivity of self-monitoring have not been isolated. While a large number of variable related to the issues of reactivity and accuracy have been investigated with adult populations, research on these variables with children has been much more limited. The investigation of Handleman and Harris (1984) with children with autism (using low teacher/student ratio) was one of the major exceptions. However, evidence supporting the cross-cultural validity and usefulness of self-monitoring, as an assessment and intervention procedures is not yet mounting (Watkins & Akande, 1994).

The purpose of this research was to explore the cross-cultural validity of the self-monitoring technique by attempting to validate the consistent conclusions of Handleman and Harris (1984); Glasgow, Swaney and Schafer, (1981); Nelson and McReynold, (1971), that when tutors are provided with a teaching structure, their performance will be good. Following Handleman and Harris (1984) the present study asked the individual tutors to record `their own reinforcing behaviors, so as to influence the frequency of reinforcement they delivered to children with autism during play.'

Methods

Subjects

The subjects were four boys and three girls, ages 4 and 5, enrolled at the Career and Counseling Center of University of Ibadan, Nigeria. On the Stanford-Binet (Thorndike, Hagen, & Sattler, 1986) they earned a mean of 61 (range score was 32.4 (range 21,3-36) and Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-Revised (Dunn & Dunn, 1981) the mean was 58.6 (range 38-87). The mean Childhood Autism Rating Scale (Schopler, Reichler, DeVellis, & Daly, 1980) score was 31.5 (range 24.3-36). According to the criteria of the DSM-IIIR, (APA,1984), children with autism may not seek comfort when hurt, fail to imitate on request and/or fail to show interest in modeling the behavior of adults, have limited if any interest in social play, and at the highest levels, may be impaired in the ability to form peer friendships. They might be markedly deficient in the skills needed to negotiate the social world of childhood or respond empathetically to the needs of their peers (Haris, Celiberti & Lilleleht, 1993). The African sample appeared to have met the above criteria and they also exhibited 9 of the 16 criteria provided by the American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV-R, APA, 1994). The essential diagnostic features for autism include onset of the disorder prior to the age of 30 months; a pervasive lack of response to others; gross deficits in language, disturbed interpersonal relationships, and bizzare response to the environment, including resistance to change. While autism and mental retardation are distinct disorders, they often coexist in the same child, but in these children these showed normal physical development and none of the physical stigmata commonly associated with retardation (Harris & Handleman,1988; Schreibman, Ploog & Oke, 1988). Data for this evaluation were collected in order to obtain normative data on the children's cognitive and language functioning.

Setting

The study was conducted in a room separated from, and associated with, treatment. The room used during sessions, resembled a typical waiting room, with toys to which the children with autism had free access. However it was equipped with a one-way mirror and sound monitoring. The children were requested to play with some toys (small and large pegs, He-Man, cars) that elicit dialogue with their peers during the first week of the study.

Procedure

During the first week, an initial baseline condition was conducted, followed by a week, self-monitoring treatment phase. A return to baseline occurred on day 15 and for another seven days. During baseline week of treatment a token economy was established. The children received cents contingent upon correct response. cents could buy backup reinforcers such as sweets or access to an activity (e.g. listening to music or watching video). Following Schreibman et al., (1988), the use of a token economy was established for three reasons (a) it was easily administered and would not interrupt the autistic children's responding., (b) it was appropriate given their levels of functioning and their chronological age and (c) it would allow the tutors to use a response-cost procedure to reduce behavioral excesses and other inappropriate behaviors. When the children first began treatment, they displayed a high rate of verbal avoidance behaviors, tutors gave a different toy every two minutes and encourage the children to play by using only verbal prompt, thus allowing them to learn more appropriate speech through interaction with others. A response-cost procedure (losing one cent for each occurance of the behavior) was implemented and effectively decreased the avoidance behaviors. Tutors were told to reinforce playing with compliments such as "Good children," "I admire the way you're playing" or "beautiful."

Activities during the second week - selfmonitoring phase were similar to those during the first week - baseline phase except that each tutor was instructed to record by hand, the frequency of reinforcers or reinforcing statements made to the children with autism.

The last phase - return-to-baseline was identical to the initial activities in the baseline condition. In order to obtain an effective treatment program, two independent observers recorded both the frequency of play and tutor reinforcement from behind the one-way mirror during all sessions. Other assessments included observations alternated in a fixed sequence each minute signaled by a tape recording. A third independent rater scored each session and computed an interrater agreement score. The study was carried out while the author was a professor at the Obafemi Awolowo University, IIe-Ife, Nigeria.

Analysis

The SPSSX computer program (Hull & Nie, 1984) was utilized to calculate variable means and degree of concordance. The procedure advocated by Handleman and Harris (1984) was adopted in which the means for frequency of reinforcement was calculated in the baseline, self-monitoring and final baseline. I addition, the mean reliability rating on the frequency of reinforcement will not be affected by the unique variance of each condition.

Results and Discussion

Mean reliability ratings on the frequency of reinforcement ranged from 89.7 to 94.5. Mean ratings computed for play range from 91.3 to 97.2. These figures are comparable to but slightly lower than the American norming data of Handleman and Harris (1984). Examination of the means for frequency of reinforcement in each condition baseline, self-monitoring phase and final baseline phase indicated increase in the number of reinforcements delivered to the children with autism and decrease when there was a return to baseline phase. This was also the pattern in earlier studies among the American children (cf. Glaskow, Swaney & Schafer, 1981; Habdleman & Harris, 1984; Nelson & McReynolds, 1971).

The average scores for the frequency of reinforcement and the comparable changes in the means for each child's play across the three phases or conditions for the African sample are shown in Table 1. There was an increase in the number of reinforcement delivered to the African children with autism during the self-monitoring phase while conversely there was a decrease when there was a return to final baseline. The results also indicate that the concepts underlying the use of self-monitoring as an intervention procedure are relevant and that there is positive relationship between reinforcement and play, adequate to increase effectiveness of various caregivers and service providers, for these African children. This is demonstrated by greater play behavior demonstrated by each child during the intervention phase than in other two conditions.

I have also found, with the African sample who have a handicapping condition, a usefulness for the self-monitoring technique as a training and supervision package consistent with Handleman and Harris' theory and similar to those reported in validity studies with American children, and also that when undergraduate assistants are provided with a clear-cut instructional structure, they perform teaching in a competent manner with the children with autism. However, it appears when the teaching structure does not exist, the undergraduate tutors' responsibilities are somewhat fuzzy. So the self-monitoring technique appears to be sufficiently useful and effective for service providers and caregivers, for me to conclude cautiously that it is positively related to confidence and capable of acting as a moderator of the relationship between reinforcement and play. In agreement with Shapiro and Cole's (1993) position that ;when self-monitoring is used primarily as an intervention procedure, the key issues are those surrounding is reactivity, or behavior change that occurs simply as a result of the act of self-monitoring.' (Shapiro & Cole, 1993; p. 136). Of course, the generalizability of these findings to other African children (or different ages, from other ethnic groupings or from less urbanized areas) must be questioned. However, these subjects, like the other previous American samples, appeared to be as typical as possible of 4-5 year-old children in their province or state of the country. So the study reported here should provide useful clues to researchers trying to build cross-cultural models of the self-monitoring technique. This research indicates that the self-monitoring is a suitable intervention procedure for pursuing such investigations with African children.

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