role of teachers and the schools in assisting children who live with violence, The

The article discusses how young people can survive despite violence at home and at school. A case study of a young woman who survived family and school violence is presented. There is a discussion of strategies for teachers and schools to assist the children who live with violence.

In the United States, violence is romanticized in our culture (Lantieri, 1995; Sautter,1995) and especially in our cities. Each day, we see and hear on television, radio, in newspapers and real life, images of dehumanizing violence. Children and juveniles are often the unfortunate victims of the violence that surrounds us. The number of violent crimes perpetrated against juveniles between the ages of 12 and 17 rose by 24% between 1988 and 1992. The US Department of Justice estimates that about one in 13 youngsters is victimized; a figure supported by records of reports of child abuse and neglect received by community agencies (Wallach, 1994). Many children are not safe in their own homes and are regularly harmed by the adults entrusted to care for them (Violence and Youth: Psychology's Response, 1993).

In 1994, for the first time ever, the category "fighting, violence, and gangs" emerged as the biggest problem confronting local schools in the Gallup/Phi Delta Kappa annual survey of the public's attitude toward the public schools (lack of discipline traditionally held the top spot; it tied with violence for first) (Elam, Rose, & Gallup, 1994). Some of this conflict is caused by ethnic and racial intolerance, as the public schools reflect the country's growing unrest regarding immigration and immigrant groups. Voters in California who passed Proposition 187 (still being contested in the courts) barring illegal aliens from attending public primary and secondary schools, openly expressed resentment about the economic impact of immigration on California. A recent California study of school violence asked 60 focus groups "What do you think caused the school violence you experienced or witnessed?" The most frequently mentioned cause was "ethnic and cultural ignorance" (Commission on Teacher Credentialing, 1995). Lickona (1993) described the rising youth violence and resurgence of bigotry on school campuses (preschool through college) as "troubling trends in youth character" (p. 7). Cities with increasing numbers of students from historically under represented groups in the public schools are most visibly reeling under the pressure, but discrimination problems extend to public schools in the suburbs and towns.

Violence at every turn can exact a high toll from youngsters. They may exhibit violent behavior themselves, or they may demonstrate their hurt in less physical ways. Although statistics are difficult to fix precisely, there does not seem to be an increase in the overall incidence of youth violence. However, the seriousness of the crimes and violence committed by youngsters has increased (Crime Report: Youths who kill hit record high numbers, 1993; Wood, Zolud, & Hoag, 1996). When children's energies are drained because they are defending themselves against outside dangers or warding off their own fears, they have difficulty learning in school (Craig, 1992). When the violence continues month after month, their schoolwork suffers and the children become academically discouraged and more likely to fail in school. Children who live with violence may repress feelings, their way of establishing a defense to what is happening around them (Wallach, 1994). This pattern of repressing feelings can interfere with their ability to relate to others and even to feel empathy for others.

The purpose of this paper is to discuss survival; how young people can survive despite the violence at home and at school and how teachers and schools can assist them. The paper will present 1) an illustrative case study of a young woman who survived family and school violence and 2) a discussion of strategies for teachers and schools to assist the children who live with violence.

Almost incredibly, many children and youth do succeed despite severe situations in their homes and communities. What are the characteristics of these young people who seem to succeed in spite of living in an environment that batters them at every turn? Social competency, flexibility and interpersonal skills, particularly a sense of humor, seems to enable a resilient child to establish positive, healthy friendships (Berndt & Ladd, 1989; Werner & Smith, 1982). Other characteristics have been identified as problem solving skills, a sense of personal autonomy, and optimistic expectations regarding the future (Barr & Parrett, 1995). As the authors were investigating this problem area, they were introduced to Christina, a 16-year old who seems to be one of these resilient young people. Subsequent interviews with Christina and her teachers supported the critical role that teachers and schools can play in helping a child deal with violence in his or her life. Her case will be detailed here as a living example of a young girl who lived in fear of abuse at home and ethnic/racial discrimination in the community. She has survived because her teachers at school helped her to feel like she was a worthwhile, competent person.

The Case of Christina

There are tens of thousands of young people who, like Christina, are experiencing violence from family members at home and violence at school arising from racial and ethnic issues. Christina's story is a case study with lessons for others. In gathering the background, Christina was interviewed in many different settings, formal and informal, over a period of approximately six months. Christina and her interviewer had lunch, attended university basketball games, and spent many hours together. Christina suggested the names of some of her former teachers from the urban elementary and middle schools she had attended. Seven of Christina's former teachers were interviewed, some in person and some by telephone. Mrs. M., the teacher Christina describes as most significant in her life, was interviewed several times.

Christina's Recollections

Christina is sixteen years old and lives in an apartment with her mother and seventeen year old brother in a large, sprawling city in Southern California. Her parents are from San Salvador, which according to Christina, has the potential for causing problems in her school. When asked to explain why she stated, "The fact is that even though South American students are all considered Latino there is a great deal of competitiveness and, in some cases, hostility among the various groups. I have experienced situations where different Latino groups call each other names. These name calling incidents frequently erupted at middle school, resulting in fights between students of different cultures and tensions running high among rival groups of students."

The first conversation began with Christina's recalling her earliest memory about school. "Well," she said, "I always loved school. I looked forward to going to school as far back as I can remember and I have always been a good student." When she told about her excitement and anticipation of beginning Kindergarten, she also told of conflict and frustration. It happened that her parents had a fight the morning of her first day of school which resulted in her being late for school. She remembers it as follows: "I remember feeling a burst of excitement rushing through me. The day I had been waiting for all through summer had finally arrived. I was dressed and ready to go when I heard shouting coming from the kitchen of our apartment. Frustration and nervousness started taking over, taking over my mind and stomach. I began to worry about being late and whether my father would hit my mother this time, too."

Christina recalled she had mastered the requirements of first grade with ease. "In first grade I was disappointed because I wanted to learn things, and all we did was writing lines and things and everything was so easy. I actually got tired of getting everything right because then there was nothing to do, so I purposely did things wrong so that the teacher would pay more attention to me and give me more work." She was animated as she talked about how she loved school and considered herself a good student, but her face lost expression as she spoke of harsh times accompanying her successes. She gave as an example, the expectations placed upon her by her father that she felt were unrealistic and discouraging. "Many times he scolded me because I couldn't do something that I hadn't been taught yet. He would get mad and yell at me or hit me when I couldn't do what he said I should be doing." There was a tone in her voice that indicated this was a hurtful memory and she had no idea what she could have done differently to remedy this situation. Christina told of her teacher making school fun and giving her challenging work in second grade. The next year she was placed in an advanced track and she said although it was "hard at first because the teacher was strict and hard," she did well.

In addition to the pressures from her father, Christina also suffered from being labeled by her peers for her ability to learn so quickly. Other Latino students disapproved of her trying to act like the Anglo students. At times her peer group made fun of her when she showed her brightness. She soon learned to give incorrect answers in order to avoid the unkind remarks made by the other students.

When she was in school, just as when she was younger, violent acts were part of the family conflict both she and her brother experienced. She shared one example when her stepdad tried to teach her brother math the way he had been taught. "When my brother told my dad that he was wrong he hit him in the face making my brother's nose bleed profusely," she explained. Similarly, her father's violent nature was manifested upon her mother. It was not uncommon, Christina explained, for her mother to have a black eye as a result of arguments with the father and even as a young child, Christina too was sometimes the recipient of her father's wrath. Often he would accuse her of being "stupid and lazy" if she did not grasp immediately concepts that were, for him, very familiar. Sadly she told that as she became older, her brother took on her father's violent behaviors and treated Christina with the same abuses to which he had been subjected. She vividly recalled incidents when her brother would speak rudely as if in authority and threaten Christina and her mother as he had seen his stepfather do.

One of Christina's primary teachers from this period remembered Christina as a cute little girl who clearly had a difficult home life. The teacher said, "We must give a child hope. Hope and a better way, validates for the young child, everything we are working toward in the classroom."

Fourth Grade and Mrs. M.

Her first encounter with Mrs. M. occurred when she reached fourth grade and a whole new world opened for Christina. When Christina was asked what was special about this teacher, she said, "She was different from any teacher I had ever had before. She had many things in her classroom that I had never experienced; things like pictures of kids from different cultures; posters about self esteem. She also did things differently. There was a boy in our class who would get mad and do violent things and she would spend a lot of time talking to him and help him understand what it was that he could do to make things better for himself. After these talks, the situation improved."

During her year in Mrs. M's classroom, Christina was challenged to work harder than she had ever worked in order to excel. She was given the opportunity to interact with other children and accept new and different points of view and ways of doing things. Her world changed completely. For the first time in her life she was told that she was "special," that she should look at herself and believe in herself and that there was nothing she could not do if she really wanted to. Christina spoke fondly of Mrs. M.'s compliments as well as the special wink she gave each student as a gesture of "hello" or "good job."

In middle school, her teachers told Christina that she was capable of succeeding, even excelling, and most importantly, made her feel good about herself. "At home, I was never the daughter my father wanted me to be. I was never good enough for him, and my mother could not relate to my world outside our home," recalled Christina. School was a safe haven, free of the fighting and bitterness of her home. She recalls, "I was told I was good enough to do and be anything I wanted."

Christina talked about her many friends who have "I don't care" attitude. Most of them have been disregarded and/or abused in their home environments. She explained: "Many of my friends' parents are very strict and they get punished a lot. I think that is because their parents didn't have many opportunities themselves and also they didn't do well themselves. They (friends) will just develop an "attitude" and speak out at home and in class, becoming disruptive and even violent."

When Christina was asked why she thought students did this and she quickly responded, "I think it's because of the way their parents treat them and that is the way they were treated themselves as children." She continued, "My mom and dad both told me about being belittled and hit when they were youngsters; I believe that was the reason they themselves participated in such behavior." She said her own mother had experienced an extremely hard life. "At age nine," She recalled, "my mother was raped by her half brother, you can really see a pattern here."

Teachers Making a Difference

Life made dramatic changes for Christina because of her continued association with Mrs. M. She knows that she has someone who not only truly cares for her but also someone who gives her the confidence necessary to move beyond the limits and bonds of her home environment. Asked what happened to make a difference, Christina said,

She gave me confidence in myself. She never doubted that I could succeed. Mrs. M. told me that I was a good person and that I was doing a good job with my life. I believed her because I saw how I responded to the positive way she treated me and all of the other students in her class. She made us feel OK about ourselves and respect others, "That's powerful."

Establishing an Environment for Learning

Christina's experience in school with teachers who cared about her as a person is a life example consistent with the educational literature regarding the importance of teachers' establishing caring, personalized learning environments (Bartelt, 1995; Gregory, 1993; Kohn, 1991; Muncey & McQuillen, 1993; Office of Educational Research and Improvement, 1987). The optimum situation is one in which a relatively small group of students are taught by a team of caring, yet demanding, instructor. The small learning environments become communities of support, or as Barr and Parrett (1995) term it "educational intensive care units" (p. 60). Teachers who establish these nurturing environments employ strategies for intervention that can assist youngsters in succeeding despite the violence at home and other areas of the school. These teachers must show by their words and their actions their caring for young people; such teachers

communicate high expectations

really listen

are hard working and really care about student learning

Interviews with Christina's teachers supported this. Many of the teachers interviewed call school a "safe haven." They said that many children hate to see weekends and holidays because it means closed school. One elementary teacher said, "Classroom environments make a significant impact on children who come from environments considered unsafe."

Conflict Resolution and Cooperative Learning

While a number of programs and strategies designed to address the issues of violence are being implemented in schools across the country, among the most successful means to intervene have been conflict resolution and cooperative learning strategies. Nationwide, more than 2000 schools conduct conflict resolution programs (Sautter, 1995). The programs educate for intergroup understanding, alternatives to violence, and creative conflict resolution. While adults often view conflicts between children as destructive and seek to prevent them or to intervene, researchers have found that peer conflict can be instrumental in child development and is an important means of social interaction for young people (Rende & Killen, 1992; Ross & Conant, 1992). Conflict resolution programs encourage open discussion in a supportive atmosphere. The teachers' listening and encouraging discussion of managing conflict helps not only the children who have been "acting out," but may be a critical opportunity to enable all the at-risk youngsters to acknowledge their emotions and talk about them (Wheeler, 1994).

Cooperative learning strategies are consistent with the personalized learning environment and its message of valuing individuals and showing respect for one another. The two well-known models of cooperative learning are, Spencer Kagan's (Widaman & Kagan, 1987) and Johnson and Johnson's (Johnson, Johnson, & Holubec, 1986). The basic elements of cooperative learning, according to Johnson and Johnson are: positive interdependence, face-to-face interaction, individual accountability, interpersonal and small group skills, and group processing (1986).

Ethnic and Racial Understanding

Teachers should reinforce the messages of personal accountability and responsibility consistently, developing many and varied classroom activities to talk about diversity (Schmidt, Friedman, Abrams, 1991). Younger children may be afraid or suspicious of people who are different; their environment should acknowledge and appreciate diversity (Kriedler, 1995). The classroom environment should reflect an understanding and appreciation for diversity beyond the surface level of familiarity with different customs, extending to more "deep structure" such as the teacher's attention to modeling the valuing of different ethnic and racial groups, infusing issues of discrimination and racism in the curriculum, and even being mindful of the teacher's own day-to-day interactions with other teachers and students. Classroom projects such as students researching languages spoken by people in the neighborhood or investigating safety as a local social issue, e.g. surveying different ages, genders, racial, ethnic groups, can engage students, teach students to care about people's welfare, and communicate the teachers' and school's recognition for students' language and culture (Cummins & Sayers, 1995). For all ages, there needs to be classroom discussion of issues relating to discrimination and racism. The increasing availability on the internet of information and teaching resources is an opportunity for teachers; for example, the Ohio Council on Holocaust Education (Rabinsky & Danks, 1989) has a teaching guide on anti-Semitism. Daily newspapers have numerous articles on discrimination and racism, but often the most powerful lessons are from students' experience, their "here and now." Christina was hurt when other students ridiculed her because her family was from San Salvador. While it would take sensitive handling, that experience and those feelings (hurt, anger, surprise) could become a riveting group discussion for the class.

In this paper, we have focused on ways schools and classroom teachers can address problems of increased violence in families and schools by teaching peace. An additional way educators can influence positive change is by supporting the legislation and public policy changes needed to deal with social transitions such as the movement of resources and jobs from the central city areas (Bartelt, 1995). Severe economic crises usually result in increases in crime and violence in families and the community, as people become frustrated at their inability to get a job and support themselves and their families (Fineman, 1995). The challenges are formidable, but the rewards, saving the lives of young people, are worth it.

Epilogue

Life for Christina is changing. Last year, following numerous incidents of verbal and physical abuse, Christina sought help and obtained a restraining order against her father. As a result, Christina's father has been incarcerated for a sentence of six years. This removed their fear of the father's violence, but problems remain in the home. Christina's mother is unhappy she is alone, without her husband.

Today, as a junior in high school, Christina continues to be committed to succeeding in school, but like most youngsters, faces constant temptations and struggles. In addition to her school work she is now working at a part time job that offers her some financial and personal independence. She continues to have her good times at school and at home, bad times. During the last interview session Christina was asked to summarize how she would describe herself. Without hesitation she said, "I'm an OK person!"

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JEAN WILSON HOUCK, DEAN

SYLVIA MAXSON, AssiSTANT PROFESSOR

College of Education California State University Long Beach, California 90840-2201

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