TIME USE EFFICIENCY AND THE FIVE-FACTOR MODEL OF PERSONALITY

To investigate the relationship between self-perceived time use efficiency and the five-factor model of personality, 105 university students were administered the Time Use Efficiency Scale (TUES; Kelly, 2003) and Saucier's Big-Five Mini-Markers (Saucier, 1994). The results indicated that time use efficiency was strongly, positively related to conscientiousness, but not significantly related to the other personality factors. Factor analytic analyses indicated that the TUES and Saucier's conscientiousness factor measured separate constructs.

The ability to use time efficiently is an important skill in academic settings. Students are constantly faced with deadlines and have specific outcomes (i.e., assignments) to produce within a specified time period. Despite the apparent importance of using one's time efficiently, surprisingly little is known about efficient time use and its correlates. Kelly (2002, p. 13) defined time use efficiency as "making the best use of one's time." Although several previous studies have investigated specific elements of how to make use of one's time, i.e., time management and time structure, little research has examined time use efficiency as a psychological construct. To spur research on the topic, Kelly (2002) presented a theory of time use efficiency which included three basic elements: an awareness of time, awareness of that which fills time, and positive in-task work habits.

An awareness of time suggests that individuals must be aware of time, both in general and as it passes, and use that awareness effectively. Awareness of that which fills time suggests that individuals are familiar with tasks which fill time, including an ability to analyze how long tasks take to complete, and use that awareness to allot sufficient time to complete tasks. Finally, possessing positive in-task work habits include cognitive and behavioral tasks which facilitate the completion of tasks, such as time management behaviors, attention to task, and self-discipline (Kelly, 2002).

To better study time use efficiency, Kelly (2003) developed the Time Use Efficiency Scale (TUES). Kelly reported that higher scores on the scale correlated with less procrastination, a greater sense of purpose in time use, more use of routines and time structure, the use of time management behaviors, setting goals and priorities, self-efficacy, less stress, and an internal locus of control. The TUES also has been found to positively correlate with higher grade-point averages among college students (Kelly, 2004).

Based on the correlates of the TUES presented earlier and the theoretical framework presented by Kelly (2002), it would appear that time use efficiency includes, or correlates with, many elements of conscientiousness of the Five-Factor Model of Personality (FFM; i.e., Digman & Inouye, 1986). The FFM asserts that "normal" human personality can be described using five general dimensions:

1. openness to experience, or intellect (imagination curiosity, and intellectualism),

2. conscientiousness (impulse control, planning, and organization),

3. extraversion (sociable and outgoing),

4. agreeableness (altruism and empathy), and

5. emotional instability, or neuroticism (psychological maladjustment and more experiences of unpleasant emotions).

Highly conscientious individuals are typically described as being purposeful, strong-willed, determined, careful, future-oriented, and motivated to accomplish goals (Costa & McCrae, 1992; Digman & Inouye, 1986). Individuals low in conscientiousness are described as lackadaisical in working towards goals and somewhat hedonistic. Previous research has found conscientiousness to relate to a tendency to make lists, plan, and prioritize activities (Feig, 1995), allowing oneself additional time to complete tasks (Kelly, Johnson, & Miller, 2003), less procrastination (Johnson, & Bloom, 1995), and a more positive attitude and approach to tasks (Gellatly, 1996). Because of the overlap between conscientiousness correlates and the theoretical description and correlates of time use efficiency, it was predicted that time use efficiency would positively relate to conscientiousness. Due to the lack of theoretical associations between time use efficiency and the other four factors of the FFM, no other predictions were made.

Method

Participants and Procedure

After obtaining informed consent, 105 (71 female) undergraduate human services and graduate counseling students were administered the self-report instruments described below. The average age of the sample was 25.4 years (SD = 7.1). The majority of the sample (71%) identified their race as White/European American. Other identified races included African American/Black (7%), Latino(a)/Hispanic (7%), Asian American (9%), and other or not identified (6%).

Instruments

Time Use Efficiency. Time use efficiency was measured using the 7-item Time Use Efficiency Scale (TUES; Kelly, 2003). Participants responded to items using a 7-point Likert-type scale (1 = "strongly disagree" to 7 = "strongly agree"). Item responses were summed to produce a total TUES score. Higher scores indicate greater self-perceived time use efficiency. Kelly reported that the TUES had good test-retest reliability (.86, 4 weeks), Coefficient Alphas across six samples ranging from .84 to .86, and suitable construct validity.

Big-Five Mini Markers. Saucier's (1994) Big-Five Mini-Markers were used to measure the FFM. The Mini-Markers consist of 40 adjectives (8 for each personality factor described previously). For this study, we simplified the response scale to a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 = "strongly disagree" to 5 = "strongly agree." Saucier found that the Mini-Marker factors have acceptable internal consistency (α = .78 - .86). Saucier (1994) and Palmer and Loveland (2004) found support for the validity of the Mini-Markers as a measure of the FFM.

Results

Correlations, coefficient alphas, means, and standard deviations of measures used in this study are presented in Table 1. As seen in the table, TUES scores strongly, positively correlated with conscientiousness scores. The TUES did not significantly correlate with the other personality factors as measured by the Mini-Markers. The relationship between the TUES and agreeableness neared, but did not reach, statistical significance. Because of the high correlation between the TUES and conscientiousness scores, it was deemed necessary to test the discreteness of the conscientiousness and time use efficiency constructs as measured in this study. This was tested by calculating a principal components factor analysis with a varimax rotation on the seven TUES items and the eight Mini-Marker conscientiousness items. Expecting two orthogonal constructs to be represented (time use efficiency and conscientiousness), a two-factor solution was forced. Because of the small sample size a stringent factor loading cut-off of .50 was chosen (Hair, Anderson, Tatham, & Black, 1995). The two factors accounted for a total of 54.2% of the variance in responses. Factor 1 (eigenvalue = 4.1) accounted for 27.6% of the variance and included all of the TUES items and one conscientiousness item. Factor 2 (eigenvalue = 4.0) accounted for 26.7% of the variance and included all of the conscientiousness items except the one loading on Factor 1. Factor loadings are presented in Table 2.

Discussion

The results of this study supported the hypothesis. That is, time use efficiency was positively related to conscientiousness. This result was consistent with previous research findings and theoretical suggestions that both conscientiousness and time use efficiency relate to time use and time use strategies (Feig, 1995; Johnson & Bloom, 1995; Kelly, 2002, 2003; Kelly et al., 2003). Further, the results of this study indirectly support both Kelly's (2002) theory and the validity of the TUES, in that a relationship was found between time use efficiency and conscientiousness, a hypothetically related variable. A noteworthy finding was that although time use efficiency and conscientiousness were highly related, they appear to measure separate constructs. This finding provides some support for the discriminant validity of the TUES. Based on the results of this study, improvement of students' time use efficiency might be increased by supporting increases in behaviors and attitudes associated with the conscientious personality.

There are several limitations of the current study which should be noted. For example, the sample was relatively small and consisted of primarily White females. Thus, generalizing the results to other samples should be done with caution. Additionally, this study relied solely on self-report measures. Further research is needed to replicate and extend these findings using larger, more diverse samples, additional measurements, and experimental methods. Additionally, research is needed to examine what facets of conscientiousness (see Costa & McCrae, 1992) are most related to time use efficiency.

References

Costa, P. T., Jr., & McCrae, R. R. (1992). Revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO PIR) and NEO Five-Factor Inventory (NEOFFI) Professional Manual. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.

Digman, J. M., & Inouye, J. (1986). Further specification of the five robust factors of personality. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 116-123.

Feig, R. B. (1995). Construct validation of time management within the FiveFactor Model of Personality (Doctoral Dissertation, Hofstra University, 1995). Dissertation Abstracts International, 5608B, 462.

Gellatly, I. R. (1996). Conscientiousness and task performance: Test of a cognitive process model. Journal of Applied Psychology, 81, 474-482.

Hair, J. F., Anderson, R. E., Tatham, R. L., & Black, W. C. (1995). Multivariate data analysis (4th ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Johnson, J. L., & Bloom. A. M. (1995). An analysis of the contribution of the five factors of personality on variance in academic procrastination. Personality and Individual Differences, 18, 127-133.

Kelly, W. E. (2002). Harnessing the river of time: A theoretical framework of time use efficiency with suggestions for counselors. Journal of Employment Counseling, 39, 12-21.

Kelly, W. E. (2003). Manual for the Time Use Efficiency Scale. Austin, TX: Individual Differences Research Group.

Kelly, W. E. (2004). As achievement sails the river of time: The role of time use efficiency in grade-point average. Educational Research Quarterly, 27, 3-8.

Kelly, W. E., Johnson, J. L., & Miller, M. J. (2003). Conscientiousness and the prediction of task duration. North American Journal of Psychology, 5, 443-450.

Palmer, J. K., & Loveland, J. M. (2004). Further investigation of the psychometric properties of Saucier's Big Five Mini-Markers: Evidence for criterion and construct validity. Individual Differences Research, 2, 231-238.

Saucier, G. (1994). Mini-Markers: A brief version of Goldberg's unipolar Big-Five markers. Journal of Personality Assessment, 63, 506-516.

WILLIAM E. KELLY

Texas A&M University, Kingsville

JUDITH L. JOHNSON

Regent University

Author Note

Please address correspondence to Dr. William Kelly; Department of Psychology; 700 University Blvd, MSC 177; Texas A&M-Kingsville; Kingsville, TX 7833; william.kelly@ta&muv.edu (email).

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