Kayak programming: a risk management approach - kayaking

Kayaking. It's an adventure that people seldom forget once they've tried it and a thrill that is addictive for many more. And for a number of these people, their passion for kayaking began in a swimming pool.

With the increased popularity of kayaking as a leisure pursuit, recreation professionals have provided numerous educational and adventure experiences for novice and experienced kayakers. And swimming pools commonly are used for training and practice sessions prior to having an open water or white water experience.

As a result, states have established regulatory codes that require an administrator to provide special inservice to lifeguards who supervise these activities. The Washington State Department of Health in 1990 established new regulatory ordinances reading,"Where SCUBA or Kayaking lesson, are performed at the pool, personnel guarding these activities shall be provided special inservice training." (Washington Administrative Codes, 1990, p.1037)

With the uniqueness of kayaking programs and related rescues, additional training must be provided to the lifeguard responsible for supervision of kayaking activities. Normal preventive measures, recognition, and rescue techniques are changed with a kayak attached to the program participant. Currently, there is a lack of training protocol within lifeguard certifications, training, and licensing agencies.

As the Langendorfer and Bruya (1988) model (Figure 1) would indicate, risk management is an essential part of reducing aquatic liability and preventing injury.

Injury prevention and risk management (Figure 2) are functions of documenting preventive awareness, documenting the ability of the lifeguard to recognize a distressed or drowning kayaker, documenting the skill of the lifeguard to know when to intervene, and documenting proper training in the techniques specifically used to rescue a distressed or drowning kayaker.

Preventive Awareness

A lifeguard's primary duty is to prevent all incidents or accidents from occurring (ARC, 1990). Kayak instructors, lifeguards, and participants can decrease the likelihood that an injury will occur by increasing the awareness of the risks involved while kayaking. A decrease in likelihood of injury also will occur through preventive measures for reducing those risks to the participants involved in the program.

Preventive awareness (Figure 3) consists of initially screening the participants through float tests and increasing the awareness of hazards specific to kayaking. This includes knowledge of equipment, knowledge of skill levels of user/participants, and development of an awareness of preventive measures for the guards and instructors.

Float Tests

All participants must be screened for ability to swim and stay afloat in deep water. If a participant is a poor swimmer or non-swimmer, the instructor is able to address the lack of swimming skills and document the issue by locating the problem during the float test. It is sufficient to use the procedures established for the float tests in either the ARC/United States Sailing Association's Start Sailing Right (1989) program or the American Canoeing Association's program.

Hazard Awareness

Participants, instructors, and guards all need to possess a good understanding and awareness of issues relative to prevention. These include equipment hazards, entry from the deck, and teaching progressions.

Equipment hazards specific to kayaking include properly-located ,pray-skirt tabs and a properly-fitted kayak. With an understanding of the tab system used for escape from a capsized kayak, participants are more likely to be able to take the necessary precautions prior to a capsizing incident. Participants need to be trained to realize that the tab on the spray skirt must be fully exposed at the front of the cockpit for the kayaker to safely perform a wet exit when cap sized. Without the knowledge of the position and proper use of the tab on the spray skirt, it is likely that an injury will occur in the event of a capsized kayak. Should an injury occur and legal action be initiated against the provider of the program, it would be impossible to prove that specific training related to the use of the spray skirt had occurred unless a regular process of documentation was initiated to record the effort to train the participants of the tabs location and the proper use of the skirt prior to water entry.

Instructors, guards, and participants need to be aware of improperly-located or improperly-exposed tab, on the spray skirt with an eye toward correction prior to water entry, so that the participants under the stress of a capsizing can locate the tab quickly and safely perform a wet exit. Guards and instructors must be observant of the spray skirt tab's location within easy reach of the participant. Once this hazard is recognized by the guard and communicated to the participant, the participant is more likely to check the location of the spray skirt tab prior to practicing future capsizing skills. In the unfortunate case of an injury or drowning, records of the instruction which provided this type of information could be invaluable documentation in reducing the severity of loss in the case of a legal claim.

The kayak selected by the participant for use during the training session can also impact safety and performance. It is necessary to complete a general assessment of the student's size and shape to determine how to fit the kayak to the participant. The cockpit of the kayak must be of a size that the participant can easily slip into and out. The kayak's foot pegs must be adjusted for a slight knee bend of the participant's leg to be able to flex into the knee pads. A participant may be impeded from easily making a wet exit during a capsize from an improperly-fitted kayak. The guard, as well as the instructor, has a responsibility to ensure that the kayak is matched properly to the kayaker to prevent an accident; and either guard or instructor must record this information each time a kayak is fitted.

Since most participants will board the kayak while it is on the deck and slip the kayak into the water, participants need to know how to use their hands sculling on the water surface and know how to balance to avoid capsizing on entering the water. The guard should control the deck entries of the class by allowing one kayaker to enter the water at a time, thus preventing a multiple rescue situation. To prevent a collision, the guard needs to make sure the entry area is clear of other kayakers entering the water. Records of skills associated with entering from the deck can be valuable.

Teaching progressions are important to the participants' safety for practicing capsizing drills. Kayakers must be aware of and know the safest and simplest of rescues. These include using the pool edge, the wet exit, the Eskimo roll, hand roll, and Eskimo rescue. The guard must understand these progressions, since a rescue may be called for even in advanced classes.

The participants can gain a comfort level and sense of orientation by capsizing the kayak while holding onto the edge of the pool. The position and alertness of the guard can also affect the participant's level of comfort. Thus, the guard should be located in very close proximity to the participants, enabling the guard to respond quickly in the event of an emergency or if the self rescue techniques are not used by a panicky participant.

The wet exit is a self rescue which allows the capsized kayaker to exit the cockpit of the kayak by removing the spray skirt and rolling forward. The wet exit needs to be explained on dry land, demonstrated in the water with the participant observing, practiced in shallow water by the participant under relatively close supervision, and then followed by practice in deep water. This skill may lead into a distressed or drowning situation unless the participant has gained a positive comfort level, usually established while capsizing the kayak while holding on to the edge. The guard and instructor should ensure the lower level movement skills (capsizing at the edge of the pool) are taught and mastered before more advanced movements and skills (attempting an Eskimo roll in shallow water) are attempted (Adams, Adrian, and Bayless, 1987).

A roll is the most-advanced self-righting technique. A roll allows a kayaker to turn a capsized kayak right side up and still remain in the kayak (Figure 4). Two rolls are used commonly: the Eskimo roll and the hand roll.

During an Eskimo roll, the participant uses a paddle to right the kayak. Most participants will make numerous attempts at an Eskimo roll before becoming proficient enough to light themselves. The participant might become disoriented or exhausted fro n attempting the roll, requiring the assistance of the guard (discussed in the following paragraphs).

After learning an Eskimo roll, a hand roll may be taught. A hand roll utilizes the hands alone to right the kayak by sculling the water. This can be a difficult skill to perform even for an advanced kayaker, and skill acquisition may be predated with hours of failed attempts. An attempted hand roll is likely to result in needed assistance of the guard or another participant.

When the participant decides to abort attempts at either the Eskimo or hand rolls, participants should signal for an Eskimo rescue. An Eskimo rescue uses the bow of another kayak as a hand hold, similar to the hand hold used during the edge of the pool drill. This allows the capsized kayaker to right the kayak by using the force of a pull on the bow of another kayak.

Signalling System

Participants must be trained before they enter the water to signal that an Eskimo rescue is needed. The most effective and common signal for help is pounding on the bottom of the capsized kayak. It is essential to the safety of the participants that the guard, participant, and partners agree to the signal prior to the attempt.

The partner, in another kayak located nearby, observes the signals for an Eskimo rescue and provides assistance with his or her kayak. If the partner or another kayak is unable to maneuver to assist the signaling kayaker then the participant in the overturned kayak should perform a wet exit, or the lifeguard may need to intervene. The sequence just described should be planned with the participant in advance prior to entry.

That the signaling system as described was taught and has been documented can be important for defense when an injury occurs. Also important is documentation for each person of the need for and risks and provisions of the eskimo rescues during the learning process. If the guard is required to enter the water to assist a kayaker, it is particularly important for this information to be documented. All documentation entries should reflect these occurances. It is important to demonstrate that learning has been progressive, and injuries which may occur are not the result of incompetence or lack of instruction.

Recognition

Recognition of a distressed or drowning situation with a person still seated in the kayak is different from other recognition situations. Many novice kayakers who are accomplished swimmers become disoriented when capsized. A kayak, when capsized, makes it difficult for even the best of swimmers to right themselves, maneuver, or obtain a breath of air. Assistance may be needed up until kayakers are proficient at a roll. However, there are times when even an advanced kayaker can have difficulties and require a rescue by a guard. Thus, it is required that the guard continue to supervise even proficient kayakers in pool situations.

Without the skill of rolling to right the kayak, it is more likely that the kayakers will panic. Once a kayak is upside-down,

RISK MANAGEMENT

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INJURY PREVENTION

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PREVENTION AWARENESS

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KAYAK ROLL

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RECOGNITION DECISION MODEL

[FIGURE 5 ILLUSTRATION OMITTED] a guard must allow time for the participant to correct the situation before deciding to provide assistance. In fact, a kayaker may make numerous attempts at a roll before requiring assistance. The guards must use judgment based on their experience and training to discern when intervention is needed. Panic could set in during any of the steps to right the kayak. This would require the assistance of the lifeguard.

Recognition (Figure 5) by the guard consists of watching to, see if an upside-down kayak signaling for assistance is left unaided, observing failed attempts to get a breath, and/or monitoring the duration of the capsize. The recognition-decision model suggests that recognition may consist of just one of these aspects or any combination of these aspects leading to panic. Panic can be recognized by the random-ineffective movements of the arms and head, in contrast to effective and purposeful use of the arms to continue an attempted roll, to get a breath, or signal for an Eskimo rescue. A rescue attempt should be performed when the guard's personal judgment and experience deem it necessary.

Rescues and particularly panicked responses should be documented by the guard. This information can be of value in defense of instruction and rescue services should an injury or death occur and result in a legal suit.

Intervention

At least one and up to five rescues were made during introductory kayaking classes observed at Washington State University during the 1992-1993 school year. In this context, rescues are known as intervention. Intervention (Figure 6) in shallow water consists of providing a reaching assist, the use of an equipment rescue, and using the side of the pool. Intervention in deep water consists of the use of an equipment rescue, dragging to the edge, and release of the spray skirt.

Shallow Water. Making a reaching assist in shallow water consists of standing next to the capsized kayak and extending the hand or rescue equipment to the kayaker's arm so that the kayaker can right himself or herself. An Eskimo rescue can be performed with the bow of a partner's or other participant's kayak or with the instructor's kayak. In addition, a capsized kayaker, when located close to the side of the pool, can be pushed or towed to a position where the previously learned edge-of-the-pool righting skill can be used. Records of use of these shallow-water rescues should be maintained. This will assist in establishing the competence of the assistance provided as well as demonstrate the length of the learning curve associated with these skills.

Deep Water. The guard may use an equipment rescue using a rescue tube extended or pushed to the kayaker's arms. An Eskimo rescue can be performed with the bow of another kayak which belongs to another participant or to the instructor. A capsized kayaker, when located close to the side of the pool, can be pushed, dragged, or towed to a position where the previously learned, edge-of-the-pool righting skill can be used. Finally, the guard also may choose to enter the water to release the spray skirt and assist the kayaker in making a wet exit. Records of use of any of these deep water rescues should be maintained.

Training

Training (Figure 7) consists of both pre-service and inservice training, consisting of equipment, recognition, intervention, and inservice. In Washington state, special inservice training is required of all guards supervising kayak programs. Because it is Washington Administrative Code which is supported by the laws of the state, documentation of a training is required. Thus, this specialized training--which would occur prior to guarding a kayak program--must be documented as proof of its occurrence in response to state law.

Guards, like students, must be familiar and have experience with the equipment. The guard must be oriented to the circumstances which underlay the specialized recognition model so they can respond when a kayaker becomes distressed or is in danger of drowning. In addition, the guard must understand the intervention methods that are unique to the rescue of a kayaker in distress in both shallow and deep water situations.

The components of inservice training consist of frequency and content. Additional training should offered at least annually. By providing and documenting opportunities for guards to review skills and practice in kayaks two or three times a year, lifeguards are more likely to be able to reduce the likelihood of a tragic outcome or injury. Likewise, documentation is important should an injury or death occur and result in a legal suit.

Risk Management for Kayaking

Just as in training sessions and other parts of instructional activities, careful consideration must be given to the documentation of programming. A system to document procedures to lessen the risk of loss, includes planning, implementation, evaluation, and reporting.

Program Planning. Regular documentation, kept in a file on planning the program, will demonstrate a systematic attempt to consider all issues of safety related to presentation and instruction of kayaking activities. When organizing file folders to record documentation, it is advisable to consider categorizing planning information by the systems used to set up the program. These include a planning system, a schedule and fee system, an evaluation of performance system, a registration system, and an educational system. Documentation for each, when taken as a unit, increases the likelihood that planning activities were appropriate and inclusive. This can be especially important when an unfortunate accident happens and a law suit is filed.

Program Implementation. This phase of programming for a kayaking class generally includes documentation of rationale for grouping and group size related to pairing of persons for the roll and eskimo assist, and registration procedures which include a recorded assessment of initial swimming and water skills. It also is necessary to assess and record information concerning regular equipment inspection and inservice training programs for instructors and guards.

One suggested variation is using an advisory board which should be surveyed regularly for opinion concerning additional safety procedures. The board should consist of experts in kayaking and water safety and can be used to assist in dealing with the documentation of changes in the program to increase safety.

Evaluation of participants--and records kept of these evaluations of performance--provides a more adequate view of the skill of participants and the program safety features required to ensure safe conduct of instruction. The procedures used to determine participant skill should be initiated prior to or at the beginning of instruction. The pre-assessment should include basic water safety knowledge and skill. In addition, the ability to swim should be assessed and recorded.

Not only are visual observation and brief checks of program conduct encouraged, but records concerning these checks should be documented. Finally, an evaluation at the conclusion of the program of instruction should be used to frame the performance skill of participants (post or summative evaluation). This provides an understanding of the level of skill acquired for both the instructor and the participant and to demonstrate the success of instruction for the record.

Program Reporting. This aspect of the program covers two important concepts. The first is "assurance to participants," provided in a report card-like system, of the skills they have and have not accomplished. This helps ensure that participants won't leave with a false sense of their skill level.

The second process is to ensure that needed program changes are made prior to initiating the next instructional session. Since on-going assessments and evaluations are recorded, it is possible to view these records as a unit and develop a list of charges which should yield improvement of safety.

Generally, the documentation of all parts of the kayaking program insures reduction of settings potentially injurious to participants. In addition, some assurance of competence can be provided to outside observers in the unlikely event that a lawsuit result from injuries or accidents.

References

Adams, S.H., Adrian, M.J., and Bayless,M.A. (1987). Catastrophic Injuries In Sport: Avoidance Strategies (2nd ed.). Indianapolis, IN: Benchmark Press, Inc., 5.

American Red Cross. (1990). Lifeguarding, 6-9.

American Red Cross and United States Yacht Racing Union. (1991). Basic Sailing Instructor's Manual, 26-27.

Langendorfer, S.A., & Bruya, L (1988). "Administering Aquatic Programs for Infant and Preschool Children: Some Common Sense Principles." National Aquatic Journal, 4:2, 11-14.

Washington State Department of Health. (1990). Water Recreation Facilities, Washington Administrative Codes Chapter 246-260-100(6(a(iv)))WAC, 1037.

INTERVENTION

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TRAINING

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