Bringing ethics to life: Case study method and ARMA Internat

Pemberton, J Michael

What I hear, I forget.

What I see, I remember.

What I do, I learn.

Chinese Proverb

While most people find them stimulating, discussions of professional ethics sometimes seem a bit abstract. This "Perspectives" column provides a tested method for considering ethical situations in records and information management at a more specific, useful, and practical level than that permitted by more philosophical or theoretical approaches. Specifically, we will consider steps to enliven the ARMA sponsored "Code of Professional Responsibility" (see Appendix), which was introduced in an earlier column.(1)

While most of us who read newspapers or watch television realize that ethical professional behavior is an increasingly "hot" topic, understanding professional ethics does not come naturally. We are conditioned, of course, by family and society toward general ethical norms (e.g., don't steal, don't lie), and our fundamental values in these areas are formed in childhood. Typically, however, we have little instruction, training, or conditioning for the more specialized ethical behavior in our work lives. And, just as the content of each vocation varies, so does the set of ethical principles in each field. While many employers are issuing ethical codes for specific workplaces, these codes cannot address the specific issues of each of the occupations represented within that organization. And why should they; that is the role of professional associations. ARMA International has published a code; what is needed now is a way to bring its words to life. First, a basic premise about adult learning must be established.

PEDAGOGY OR ANDRAGOGY?

Anyone who does a lot of training or teaching of adults has probably learned, perhaps even painfully, that instructional methods used to teach children (pedagogy) rarely work well with grownups. Increasingly, adults resist those who "talk at" them. The teaching-learning strategies for adults (andragogy) must--to be both accepted and meaningful--include a generous amount of participation or direct involvement. For transmitting specific factual information, lecturing often makes sense; but for developing values, judgment, and independent thinking--hallmarks of any field's professionals--a different direction is needed. In these areas, discussion oriented instruction is an increasingly effective substitute for lecturing.

Mediated discussion is a teaching/learning format which:

* Focuses on knowledge and judgment development rather than merely "dispensing" information,

* Is a learner-centered experience rather than being teacher centered,

* Emphasizes active vs. passive learning,

* Encourages expressive and participative behavior vs. reticent behavior,

* Fosters independent thinking vs. a mindless deference to authority (the teacher), and

* Promotes peer-level cooperative efforts found in professional settings.(2)

The case study method may be the form of guided-discussion learning most appropriate to the study of professional ethics.

THE CASE STUDY GENRE

Pioneered at the Harvard [University] Business School in the U.S., the case method for the study of management and related issues has evolved as a means to tie principles to practice and make concepts tangible and meaningful. In essence, "case studies" are pieces of prose with elements which often resemble those of a short story (i.e., characters, plot, dialogue). The review and discussion of lifelike cases accomplishes several objectives:

* It puts principles into concrete perspective,

* It facilitates that higher level of vision, judgment, and direction needed by the professionals in a field,

* It gives practice in analyzing situations, encourages the balancing of conflicts within a given situation, and helps the thoughtful practitioner choose the course of action best suited for a given situation,

* It helps guide later decisions by practitioners as they are confronted with new ethical decisions, and

* In group discussions based on cases, individuals can enrich their own views by understanding those of others.

Students in college courses, such as general or strategic management, which use the case approach are often presented with written cases and asked--consensus being the order of the day--to study them as a group, applying the concepts, theories, doctrines, and terminology learned in other parts of the course.(3) The study of management naturally lends itself to case analysis, and so does ethics. Just as there are numerous collections of cases ("case books") available in the management area, there are several published for professional ethics in a variety of fields (e.g., librarianship, medicine, law, nursing, clinical psychology, computer sciences, social work).(4) As yet, there are no case books for the study of ethical problems in records and information management, but this column suggests a methodology and provides a few sample cases for use in the records and information management context. The method and cases provided could be used in ARMA chapter meetings, seminars, classrooms, and with other groups.

Within the process outlined below, analysis and discussion of cases can be combined with other, related activities:

* Participants might take roles of persons in the case and act out the case as a skit before beginning discussion.

* Individuals could hold small placards with the name of the person whose particular role they will take during the discussion; this demonstrates the reality of "where you stand depends on where you sit," especially if participants then exchange identities and take a different point of view.

* A panel of "expert" respondents who have previously studied the case problem suggest independently how each would handle this case.

* Using a group different from those who will discuss the case, videotape them acting out the story line of the case and then play the taped cases for participants as the foundation for discussion.

A CASE METHOD PROCESS(5)

Done in a group setting, case analysis encourages a constructive exchange of thoughts among discussants as to how to deal with such real-life situations. The process fosters professional judgment far more effectively than lectures or mere readings. There is no competition--except among ideas. There may be several "good" ways to respond to problems; in case study there are no "wrong" responses, though one person's view of the situation might be more limited by personal experience than by the group's broader point of view. Our reactions to ethical situations are often based on personal values, life experience, or the mores of our workplace.

During a three-hour time block, attendees organize into three discussion groups to analyze and evaluate one of three supplied case studies. Participants choose the case which most appeals to them and then join a circle of participants who have chosen that particular case. After the analytical work, each of the smaller groups will present its findings and recommendations to the larger body through its moderator. Each of the participants will have read each of the cases at the session's beginning, and some may provide feedback to the smaller groups in an interactive and useful way.

HOW TO PROCEED

First: Read/review individually "The Code of Professional Responsibility" provided (Appendix)--about 5 minutes.

Second: With the Code in mind, read each of the three (3) cases selected by the session facilitator--from among the six (6) cases provided below (labeled: Case A, Case B, Case C, and so forth)--about 15 minutes. Other cases may be developed by the facilitator and substituted.

Third: Participants should select the case which interests them most or which they think may be the most challenging. Participants join the group forming to discuss the case they have chosen (Case A or Case B or Case C). Each group should form seating into a circular small-group arrangement for discussion. (If too many attendees choose the same case, it may be necessary to choose another case.)

Fourth: Participants will spend a maximum of 75 minutes together on the following agenda:

1. Members introduce themselves.

2. The group identifies two members: one serves as a Moderator and one as a Secretary. The session Facilitator should be available to each group. Signal him or her as needed for clarification.

3. Review the basic facts of the case aloud to be sure that everyone understands them (Moderator). Note these on a large-format pad of paper provided with an easel to each of the three groups. Overlooking or misunderstanding basic facts in a case often leads to misdirection.

4. What principle(s) from "The Code of Professional Responsibility" is/are being illustrated in your case? If more than one, establish which ones. The group Secretary should note this on the paper provided. Include any ethical principles or issues not covered by the Code. (The Code is merely a beginning point.)

5. State in action-oriented terms what you believe is the main, or central, problem in the case. Record each suggestion; this leads to consensus building later.

SUGGESTION: Rather than being broadly philosophical or moral here (e.g., "Why would anybody do such a terrible thing?"), try to state the main problem specifically and in "action potential language" (e.g., "given its unethical character, how should Bob handle the assignment his boss gave him?").

6. Now, review individual suggestions as listed on the pad and try to reach an acceptable consensus as to which one of the suggested main problems best catches the essence of the facts.

7. Once participants have a consensus as to the main problem, use additional pages from the pad to begin listing--in action terms--alternative solutions to the main problem (e.g., "Bob could quit his job." "Mary should confront Bill and ask him to explain his actions."). Leave some space between each alternative solution for the next step (number 8, below). Each suggestion should be made with an eye toward the likely consequences of implementing a suggested solution.

8. Now, review each suggested alternative, one at a time, and try to identify and write down briefly in the space left for it the "pros" and "cons," or assets and liabilities, of each alternative.

9. At this point the group needs to choose the "best" alternative, the one which has the fewest "down sides" and the most "up sides." What are some of the short-term effects of taking a given alternative; what are the long-term effects, if any? Which solution best captures the spirit of the Code?

10. What are some of the specific ways in which the "best" solution might or should be implemented?

11. Should the group's best, or recommended, solution fail to work for whatever reason, note which alternative, or fallback, solution would be best.

After a ten-minute break, participants return to deliberations or to quiet socializing if their group's case analysis is already completed.

Fifth: The Moderator or the Secretary of each group brings forward the pad of paper used for notes and reviews in a maximum of twenty-five (25) minutes the group's conclusions as to:

A. The basic facts of the case,

B. The main problem,

C. The Code's principle(s), if any, that are affected,

D. What the alternative solutions were,

E. Which solution you adopted or recommend--and why,

F. What the fall-back solution is.

At the conclusion of each group presentation, participants from other groups may then raise any issues or questions they have about alternative solutions, their consequences, or perhaps suggest a solution not considered by the group. This may force the reporting group to re-think--though not necessarily change--its conclusions. When each presentation is completed, the session is finished in a formal sense. Informal post-session discussion may develop as there is interest.

THE CASE STUDIES

In the process suggested above, time is allocated for three cases. The session facilitator may want to use some of the cases supplied here and some devised prior to the session. The following cases are merely examples.

Case A--Richard's Research Project

Richard Epworth had been a records manager with fifteen years' experience at the Feel-Rite Drug Co. in Ipswhich, Florida. Three weeks ago, he joined LotsaBox Records Services and Storage in Jacksonville at almost double his old salary. He advises LotsaBox's inactive-storage clients on a variety of records management issues (e.g., retention schedules, microfilming, etc.).

Each year, Jacksonville holds a two-day Founders' Celebration honoring the men and women from the city's history who helped make the city what it is today. Through a public nomination process, the Celebration's steering committee selects a significant individual to honor each year. Richard serves on that committee this year and, while new to the community and working feverishly to establish new clients for LotsaBox, he volunteers to research, write, and present a speech on this year's honored figure, Emile Blanc, founder of Chardonnay Realty, the city's oldest real estate firm.

The press of work puts Richard further and further behind in organizing his speech. Finding time for trips to the city's distant public library, which closes at 6:00 p.m. every day, was difficult. Then, in a stroke of luck, Richard learns that Chardonnay Realty, one of the largest and oldest firms in town, has been a long-term customer of LotsaBox, Richard's new employer, AND has stored all its inactive and archival records with LotsaBox for many years.

With the Celebration starting in only four days, it suddenly dawns on Richard that trips to the library to browse albums and clipping files won't be necessary after all; virtually everything he needs to write a good speech on Emile Blanc is right there in the records center at LotsaBox! He checks and, sure enough, LotsaBox's database shows Chardonnay Realty's records series titles and relevant box numbers in the stacks.

At lunch later that day, Richard talks about his sudden revelation with Marty Block, his lunch appointment. Marty is a sales representative with Yellow Box Micrographics Systems, a major micrographics supplier to LotsaBox. "Marty," exclaimed Richard, "I can't believe how long it took me to come to my senses. With all that historical information sitting there just outside my office! Now I'm sure that the speech about Emile Blanc will be really great. No more tedious trips to the library to grub around in their clipping files and boring town histories!" Marty congratulates Richard on his timely stroke of luck. As he gazes out the restaurant window, however, Marty becomes strangely quiet, troubled by the turn of his conversation with Richard.

Case B--A Redhead's Records

Jim Wallace was delighted; he felt set for life. After only ten months, he had been promoted to the position of Senior Information Manager at the home office of Manybucks Financial Services when Lou Wilson, his former boss, retired. Jim was to head the company's central records center operations, with Manybucks' regional locations around the country transferring their inactive files to him. He would also be responsible for Manybucks' reports system, which facilitates a dozen business processes at the home office and makes possible daily distribution of COM reports to all Manybucks' locations. He also felt honored to be asked to manage conversion of the centralized personnel records from the old jacketed microfiche system to a new optical disc system. In fact, Jim had been instrumental in persuading Bill Simmons, Chief Financial Officer at Manybucks, to approve the new MegaFile System.

Only a week after his new title was announced, Jim got a phone call from Sid Parker in Marketing. Sid had been one of Jim's most vocal supporters during some heated discussions about cost-justification of the MegaFile project.

"Well, Sid," Jim exclaimed, "how are you? I haven't seen you since the office party announcing the MegaFile installation. I really appreciated your sticking up for my ideas."

"Don't give it a thought, Jim. Hey, I'm sure you'd do the same for me in a similar situation. So, you're in charge of the new central personnel records project?"

"That's right, Sid. And what a project it's going to be!"

"Right. Say, Jim, do you remember that redhead down in Accounts Receivable, Sally Malone?"

"Well, yes, it would be hard not to notice her."

"Yeah, especially given her many, ah, 'assets,' right, Jim?"

"Well, I...sure, Sid. Say, why did you bring her up?"

"Oh, nothing much. I just want to get to know Sally better, Jim, and it would make that a lot easier if you could just lend me her personnel dossier for an afternoon, you know, just to do a little 'background research.' You can do a little thing like that for an old buddy, can't you, especially after I went to bat for you with Simmons on the MegaFile System and your promotion. Hey, it's no big deal; I'd have it back to you in a couple hours at the most. Nobody will miss it. What do you say?"

"Hey, Sid, there's someone at my office door. Can I get back to you in a little while?"

"Sure, Jimbo, no big hurry."

Of course, there was no one at Jim's door, but he did open it wide, trying to capture any breeze coming down the hall that might cool off his increasingly damp shirtfront. It didn't help. Moment by moment, he was increasingly unsure what could help him!

Case C--A Case of Bad Faith?

Faith Baird slumped back into her office in the Naisbitt College Archives. Paula Crisp, Dean of Libraries, had made it as clear as crystal: either Faith came up with and completed a major scholarly product in the next two years, or she could kiss goodbye any hope of tenure on the library faculty. Faith was in her fourth year as University Archivist and Assistant Professor on the library faculty. Naisbitt College policy was definite: you either got tenure as well as promotion from Assistant Professor to Associate Professor in your sixth probationary year, or it was "curtains"--up or out!

Faith had tried to develop a research agenda and to be productive. She had, after all, published a few articles--maybe too few--in refereed journals that published in her dissertation area, the intellectual history of the antebellum South. Each new article invariably demanded trips to area institutions, late nights of reading, study, note taking, and analysis. She had very little released time from the dean, and what she did accomplish was mostly at the end of an eight-hour day of processing collections and working with faculty and students on research projects. What the dean wanted--and what increasingly stiff tenure requirements almost demanded--was a book-length project. What in heaven's name was she going to do? And in only two years at that!

Suddenly, Faith remembered the recent visit of Charles Stokley, an editor for the Shenandoah University Press in Charlottesville. She recalled his encouraging her to develop a proposal far Shenandoah, one of the South's most prestigious university presses--and one of the few interested in antebellum studies. A proposal? For what?

Wait a minute! The Stonewall papers! They'd come in only two weeks ago from the Stonewall estate. The Stonewalls were a very old, very rich, and very influential family with roots well into the Revolutionary period. The availability of the papers was not widely known. Otherwise, every academic institution in the state would have competed for the Stonewall family papers because of their volume--125 cubic feet--and because they dealt with so many topics of interest to historians, even at a national level. "That's it! I'll give Paula and the rest of them their damn book! Why didn't I think of it sooner?" She almost fell off her chair reaching for the phone that connected her to the dean's office in the main library.

In enthusiastic tones, she told Paula Crisp about the role the Stonewall papers were to play in her newly conceived plan for a study--doubtlessly brilliant--of the intellectual interests of one of the First Families of Virginia! Paula Crisp interjected only an occasional murmur of acknowledgement as Faith energetically unraveled her idea for a book. She could just move the collection into her office in the Archives and work on the book over the next couple of years. Who could possibly want the musty old stuff anyway? No more late nights and trips out of town. As Faith ran out of breath and waited for Paula to respond to her idea, she became increasingly puzzled at the lengthy silence at Paula's end of the line.

Case D--Easy Ways Out

As records manager at PDQ Electronics, Phil Seymour felt he already had enough to do. But looking on the bright side, being newly put in charge of the company's burgeoning internal technical reports was a bit of a feather in his cap. Everyone involved with the decision to "give" him the technical reports knew that the company's spatial limitations might require a creative approach to managing the growing reports collection.

Phil admitted to himself that he didn't know much about systems for technical reports--but with all the other things he had to do, he knew right now about as much as he wanted to! Weren't technical reports a library "thing?" Phil decided against talking with the PDQ librarians. Absentmindedly, Phil noticed the business card of a recent ARMA speaker on his desk.

"Hmmm, 'Kevin Michaels, Lead Sales Representative, Hi-Stor Systems.'"

Having quickly decided that high-density movable shelving was the answer, Phil asked Michaels from Hi-Stor, a well-known manufacturer of movable shelving, to do an analysis of the space to be used. This information would be used in developing "specs" for a procurement/bid process. Based on an afternoon of study at PDQ, Kevin presented Phil with detailed specs, including CD-produced schematics. Knowing that he needed at least one additional bid, Phil gave Kevin's specs package to a "rep" at MovShelf, another supplier, whose slightly lower bid eventually got the job.

Case E--An Imaging Application

Bob Wilenski, Controller at a famous and well-heeled east coast university, was very favorably impressed by an "awesome" optical imaging system he'd seen demonstrated at a computer systems trade show. Bob was sure it would take care of the paper files proliferation problem in the university's Student Loans department. After listening to Bob's brief description of the Student Loans' files, the vendor's representatives convinced Bob that their system, a $90,000 stand-alone optical disc unit, would be "an excellent application" for this department, one which reported directly to Bob. The Controller at a cross-state rival university had already been bragging about how optical disc technology had helped some of his units. Bob realized that while the Student Loans staff were nice people and knew their operation, they would never be "with it" technologically and that he'd best take the lead on this matter.

Grace Stevens, records manager for the campus, had been asked by the head of Student Loans to review their main records series in terms of improved storage capacity for files, ease of access, and faster turnaround times to reply to questions about loans. Student Loans was used to traditional vertical files equipment, but there was simply not enough floor space for additional file cabinets.

Grace spent a full day in the Student Loans unit, analyzing the problem. She consulted with some area vendors, and arranged for three of them to present their proposed solutions to the staff in Student Loans. Student Loans was convinced by Grace and the vendors working with her that their most cost-effective answer was a conversion to color-coded, eight-level open-shelf filing system. They'd get rid of the file cabinets, have more floor space for the staff, put all the files along one wall, have quicker access, and have plenty of growth space--all for about $2,500!

Bob Wilenski, however, was not convinced. Even though 20% of each file's content had to be returned in original form to the maker of the loan, he was determined to have the imaging system in place. As he had more than $90,000 in a capital improvements fund, Bob planned to commit the Student Loans department to the system. Grace shrugged her shoulders; the imaging system people had not talked with her about their system, and how could she deter the university's Controller from buying the system?

Case F--A Weekend Marathon

The pressure was really on. Sue Holt was caught in the budget preparation squeeze at ABC Electronics and had only one working day and one weekend left to get her budget for the Records Management Department for the coming year into the VP for Finance. Being out with the flu hadn't helped; neither did having her secretary quit unexpectedly. There was only one way out: finish it at home. Friday afternoon, Sue copied from her desktop computer Lotus 1-2-3 and the data files she'd been developing and took them home with her on the company laptop she checked out from the Systems Dept.

Off and on over the weekend, Sue--assisted by her son, Tom--plugged in the numbers and cranked calculations. Sue had copied everything onto Tom's computer and had given him one section of the budget forms and projections to work with while she took another. (Tom was in his second year of accounting in high school and had gotten an IBM clone last Christmas.) When Monday morning came, Sue returned to work--tired but relieved when she got the Lotus files copied from the laptop to her desktop system and a hard copy into the VP's office.

The VP's administrative assistant, Wanda Blevins, took the budget material and commented how tired Sue looked.

Sue explained how much time she and Tom had spent on the project over the weekend. "At least," she sighed, "Tom got some software to use as my thanks for his hard work." After Sue left, Wanda turned back to her work; but for the rest of the day she wondered why she felt uneasy about her brief chat with Sue.

APPENDIX:

Text of the Code of Professional Responsibility

Preamble

Records and information management is that field within the information profession responsible for managing the creation, use, maintenance, and disposition of records generated in the normal functioning of all types of organizations.

The Association of Records Managers and Administrators International (ARMA) is a not-for-profit organization representing professionals in the field of records and information management. Its primary purpose is the advancement of records and information management through education.

Purposes and Limits of the Code of Professional Responsibility

This code is intended to increase the awareness of records and information management practitioners of ethical issues and to guide them in reflection, decision making, and actions in three broad areas of ethical concern: society, work, and the profession. The code is intended to orient members of the profession to the high standards of responsibility and performance expected of them. The code is intended to inform members of the public, practitioners' associates, and practitioners' superiors of the ethical aspects of the profession and the ideals to which it aspires.

The code is not regulatory in intent; no sanctions are applicable.

I: The Social Principles

Because of their responsibility to society, records and information managers:

1. Support the principle of the free flow of information and oppose the censorship of publicly available information as necessary conditions for an informed and educated populace.

2. Support the principle that practitioners have the responsibility for information being created and maintained as accurately as possible and support the development and use of information systems and procedures which place a high priority on the maintenance of accuracy of information.

3. Endorse the principle that collection, maintenance, and distribution of information about persons is a privilege in trust, and thus the rights to privacy of all individuals must be both promoted and upheld.

4. Condemn and resist unethical or immoral uses or concealment of information.

5. Support the principle of compliance with statutory and regulatory laws related to recorded information.

II. The Occupational Principles

Because of their responsibility to their employers, records and information managers:

1. Serve the employer at the highest level of professional competence.

2. Maintain the confidentiality of privileged information.

3. Avoid personal interest or gain at the expense of their employers or co-workers.

4. Recognize situations of an illegal or unethical nature and inform the employer of possible adverse implications.

III: The Professional Principles

Because of their responsibility to their profession, records and information managers:

1. Accurately represent their education, competencies, certifications, and experience to superiors and co-workers.

2. Are actively committed to recruit persons to the profession on the basis of competence and educational qualifications and without discrimination.

3. Pursue and encourage others to pursue appropriate professional certification.

4. Pursue appropriate educational requirements for professional practice and pursue a program of ongoing education to enhance professional stature.

5. Enrich the profession by sharing their knowledge and experience.

6. Encourage public discussion of the profession's values, services, and skills.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

References

1. J. Michael Pemberton, "ARMA's Code of Professional Responsibility," Records Management Quarterly, 26, iii (July, 1992), 42, 44-45, 52.

2. See C. Roland Christensen, David A. Garvin, and Ann Sweet, eds., Education for Judgment: The Artistry of Discussion Leadership (Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press, 1991), throughout.

3. See C. Roland Christensen, Teaching and the Case Method (Boston, MA: Harvard Business School, 1987) for suggestions in the use of the case method as well as a selected bibliography for the subject.

4. See "Selected Case Books in Ethics," below.

5. The method described here has been tested at ARMA's international conferences and worked quite well in that context. In addition to advice from Christensen, Teaching and the Case Method, above, see also Arthur J. Anderson, Problems in Library Management (Littleton, CO: Libraries Unlimited, 1981), pp. 23-32, for suggested case evaluation techniques.

Selected Case Books in Professional Ethics

Freeman, John M. Tough Decisions: A Casebook in Medical Ethics. New York: Oxford University Press, 1987.

Keith-Spiegel, Patricia. Ethics in Psychology: Professional Standards and Cases. New York: Random House, 1985.

Luizzi, Vincent. A Case for Legal Ethics: Legal Ethics as a Source for a Universal Ethic. Albany, NY: State University of New York, 1993.

Parker, Donn B. Ethical Conflicts in Information. and Computer Science, Technology, and Business. Wellesley, MA: QED Information Sciences, 1990.

Veatch, Robert M. Case Studies in Nursing Ethics. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott, 1987.

Velasquez, Manuel G. Business Ethics: Concepts and Cases. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1991.

White, Herbert S. Ethical Dilemmas in Libraries: A Collection of Case Studies. Boston, MA: G.K. Hall, 1992.

Other Useful Resources

Blanchard, Kenneth and N.V. Peale. The Power of Ethical Management. New York: William Morrow, 1988.

Bologna, Jack. "Ethical Issues of the Information Era," Computers & Security 8 (December 1990): 689-692.

Burton, Paul F. Information Technology and Society: Implications for the Information Professions. London: Library Association Publishing, 1992.

Callahan, Joan, ed. Ethical Issues in Professional Life. New York: Oxford University Press.

Capurro, Rafael. "Moral Issues in Information Science," Journal of Information Science 11 (1985): 113-23; also: ERIC Document ED293551.

Codes of Professional Responsibility. 2nd edition. Washington, DC: Bureau of National Affairs, 1991.

DeMaio, Harry B. "Your Organization Needs an Information Ethics Program!" Management Accounting 73, No. 5 (November 1991): 22-23.

Dragich, Martha J. "Information Malpractice: Some Thoughts on the Potential Liability of Information Professionals," Information Technology and Libraries 8, No. 3 (September 1989): 265-72.

Encyclopedia of Ethics. 2 vols. New York: Garland Publishing, 1992.

Forester, Tom. Computer Ethics: Cautionary Tales and Ethical Dilemmas in Computing. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1990.

Gairns, Robert A. and J. Michael Pemberton, "Strengthening the Vendor-Buyer Relationship: What Every Records Manager Should Know," Records Management Quarterly 24, iv (October 1990): 3-12.

Glastonbury, Byran and Walter LaMendola. The Integrity of Intelligence: A Bill of Rights for the Information Age. New York: St. Martin's, 1992.

Goldman, Alan H. The Moral Foundations of Professional Ethics. Totowa, NJ: Rowman and Littlefield, 1980.

Gould, Carol C. The Information Web: Ethical and Social Implications. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1989.

Grace, John. "The Ethics of Information Management," Canadian Public Administration, 34, No. 1 (Spring 1991): 95-100.

Laudon, Kenneth C. Dossier Society: Value Choices in the Design of National Information Systems. New York: Columbia University Press, 1986.

Lewis, Carol W. The Ethics Challenge in Public Service: A Problem-Solving Guide. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1991.

McAdam, Rhona. "AIDS and Confidentiality: The Records Manager's Dilemma," Records Management Quarterly 23, No. 3 (July 1989): 12-16, 28.

MacNeil, Heather. The Ethics of Disclosing Personal Information in Public Archives. Chicago, IL: Scarecrow Press for the Society of American Archivists, 1992.

Mount, Eric, Jr. Professional Ethics in Context: Institutions, Images, and Empathy. Louisville, KY: John Knox Press, 1990.

Osborne, Jack L. Fair Information Practices for Managers and Employers. New York: ANACOM, 1979.

Paine, Lynn Sharp. "Corporate Policy and the Ethics of Competitor Intelligence Gathering," Journal of Business Ethics 10, No. 6 (June 1991): 423-436.

Paradice, David B. and Roy M. Dejoie. "The Ethical Decision-Making Processes of Information Systems Workers," Journal of Business Ethics 10, No. 1 (January 1991): 1-21.

Pemberton, J. Michael and Lee O. Pendergraft, "Toward a Code of Ethics: Social Relevance and the Professionalization of Records Management," Records Management Quarterly 24, ii (April, 1990), 3-8, 10-11, 15.

Rifkin, Glenn. "The Ethics Gap," Computerworld, October 14, 1991, pp. 83-90.

Smith, Martha M. "Infoethics for Leaders: Models of Moral Agency in the Information Environment," Library Trends 40, No. 3 (Winter 1992): 553-70.

Taylor, Nancy E. "Marketing Information Gathering May Be More than an Issue of Access," InfoWorld 14, No. 29 (July 20, 1992): 41.

U.S. Privacy Protection Study Commission. Personal Privacy in an Information Society: Report of the Privacy Protection Study Commission. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1977.

Wilson, Susanna. Recording: Guidelines for Social Workers. New York: The Free Press, 1980.

Zureik, Elia and Dianne Hartling, comps. The Social Context of the New Information and Communication Technologies: A Bibliography. New York: Peter Lang, 1987.

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