Environmental Outcomes of Wilderness-Based Programs of Different Lengths

Research Questions

A number of studies have investigated the importance of direct experience with nature for the development of environmental attitudes, but few studies have evaluated wilderness-based programs in comparison to other types of programs: environmental education, residential-based, and school-based programs. Moreover, these previous studies have neglected to address the differences in program duration, the multi-dimensionality of environmental attitudes, and the influence of individual characteristics (e.g., age) on program outcomes (Gillet, Thomas, Skok, & McLaughlin, 1991; Haluza-Delay, 1999; Hanna, 1988; Perdue & Warder, 1981). This study examined: (a) how long-term and short-term wilderness-based programs vary in their outcomes for participants' environmental feelings, wilderness attitude, and environmental attitude; and (b) how individual characteristics are related to program outcomes.

Procedures

University students (N = 105) participated in either a long-term (three-week) or short-term (five-day) wilderness-based program. Participants' environmental attitudes were measured before and after both programs using existing Likert-type self-report questionnaires scales: the Environmental Awareness Questionnaire for environmental feelings (Szagun & Pavlov, 1995), Wilderness Issues Questionnaire for wilderness attitude (Hanna, 1988), and the Revised New Environmental Paradigm (NEP) Scale for environmental attitude (Dunlap, Van liere, Mertig, & Jones, 2000).

Results

The ANOVA and t test procedures indicated unexpected results: environmental feelings decreased in the long-term group (t[104, 1] = 7.45, p

Stepwise regression indicated that participants raised in smaller communities showed more positive changes in environmental feelings and environmental attitude, and that those with higher levels of wilderness experience showed more positive change in wilderness attitude (.10

Conclusions

Program Duration and Multi-dimensionality of Environmental Attitudes

Two explanations are possible for the long-term group results. First, because the long-term group was exposed to extended challenges during their wilderness trip, the responses may have reflected deteriorating physical and psychological conditions, i.e., exhaustion. These students may have therefore felt less appreciative of those natural environments. second, more time in the wilderness may have led to desensitization toward natural environments and related issues. Thus, one cannot always assume that longer wilderness-based programs lead to more pro-environmental attitudes.

The lack of any change in environmental attitude in either of the groups is not surprising. The Revised-NEP scale is a more comprehensive measure of global environmental perspectives and related issues than the other two scales. One should not automatically assume that wilderness-based trips are effective to any aspect of environmental attitudes and/or beliefs.

Influence of Individual Characteristics

Numerous studies have shown that people raised in large communities exhibit more pro-environmental attitudes than their counterparts; in this study, however, the results are different. Participants raised in smaller communities exhibit more changes in pro-environmental attitude. On the other hand, outdoor experience appeared to be not only an influential factor for explaining changes in environmental attitudes, but also one exhibited by pro-environmentalists in previous studies (Palmer, 1993; Place, 2000; Tanner, 1980). Thus, the factors leading to changes in environmental attitudes through direct wilderness experience are not always the same as those exhibited by pro-environmentalists. These results lead to another question: What other characteristics of individuals (i.e., psychological and socio-demographical) contribute to pro-environmental attitudes during wilderness-based trips?

References

Dunlap, R., Van Liere, K. D., Mertig, A. G, & Jones, R. E. (2000). Measuring endorsement of New Ecological Paradigm: A revised NEP scale. Journal of Social Issues, 56, 425-442.

Gillett, D. P., Thomas, G. P., Skok, R. L., & McLaughlin, T. F. (1991). The effects of wilderness camping and hiking on the self-concept and the environmental attitudes and knowledge of 12th graders. Journal of Environmental Education, 22(3), 33-44.

Haluza-Delay, R. (1999). The culture that constrains: Experience of "nature" as part of wilderness adventure program. Journal of Experiential Education, 22(3), 129-137.

Hanna, G. M. (1988). The effects of adventure and ecology education programming on participants' wilderness knowledge, attitude, intentions and behavior. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, The Ohio State University, Columbus.

Palmer, J. A. (1993). Development of concern for the environment and formative experiences of educators. Journal of Environmental Education, 24(3), 26-30.

Perdue, R. R., & Warder, D. S. (1981). Environmental education and attitude change. Journal of Environmental Education, 12(3), 25-28.

Place, G. S. (2000). Impact of early life outdoor experiences on an individual's environmental attitudes. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Indiana University, Bloomington.

Szagun, G., & Pavlov, V. I. (1995). Environmental awareness: A comparative study of German and Russian adolescents. Youth & Society, 27, 93-112.

Tanner, T. (1980). Significant life experiences: A new research area in environmental education. Journal of Environmental Education, 11(4), 20-24.

Aiko Yoshino, doctoral student, Indiana University, Bloomington. E-mail: ayoshino@indiana.edu

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