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Associations of Blood Levels of PCB, HCHs, and HCB with Numbers of Lymphocyte Subpopulations, in Vitro Lymphocyte Response, Plasma Cytokine Levels, and Immunoglobulin Autoantibodies
Volker DanielPentachlorophenol (PCP), hexachlorocydohexane-[Alpha], -[Beta], and -[Gamma] (HCH-[Alpha], -[Beta], and -[Gamma]), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and hexachlorobenzene (HCB) are widely distributed industrial chemicals. They are suspected to induce immunologic impairments in exposed individuals. We examined dose-response relationships of blood levels of these chemicals with cellular (numbers of lymphocyte subpopulations, in vitro lymphocyte response) or humoral (plasma cytokine levels, immunoglobulin autoantibodies) immunologic dysfunctions. We studied 146 patients who had been occupationally exposed primarily to PCBs for more than 6 months. Lymphocyte subpopulations, in vitro responses to mitogens and allogeneic stimulator cells, plasma neopterin, cytokines, soluble cytokine receptors, soluble adhesion molecules, anti-Ig autoantibodies, and liver transaminases were determined. Blood levels of the different compounds were strongly correlated with one another. There were only weak dose-response relationships between blood levels of PCBs with cellular immune parameters, and of HCHs and HCB with humoral immune parameters. An exception was the statistically significant negative association of HCB with interferon-[Gamma] (IFN-[Gamma]), indicating that HCB has a significant impact on Th1 lymphocytes. Patients with HCB blood levels above the mean of 1,109 ng/L more often had undetectable IFN-[Gamma] blood levels than patients below the mean. Patients with increased PCB 138 ([is greater than] 710 ng/L) had more frequently undetectable inteleukin-4 blood levels than patients with PCB 138 below the mean, and patients with increased PCB 101 ([is greater than] 31 ng/L) more often had low DR+ cell counts in the blood ([is less than] 190/[micro]L) than patients with PCB 101 below the mean. To assess possible cumulative effects, we compared patients who had blood levels of all compounds below background with patients who had blood levels of all compounds above background. Patients with low or absent blood levels of the compounds studied had higher IFN-[Gamma] plasma levels, providing some evidence for a cumulative effect of several weakly active compounds. In conclusion, exposure to PCBs, HCB, or HCHs is associated with weak immunologic abnormalities. These results contrast with those obtained in earlier studies of blood levels of PCP, which showed a strong dose-dependent relationship with immunologic impairments. Our data suggest that long-term exposure of patients to HCB suppresses IFN-[Gamma] production. Key words: cytokines, hexachlorobenzene, hexachlorocyclohexane, immune function, lymphocytes, polychlorinated biphenyls, Environ Health Perspect 109:173-178 (2001). [Online 25 January 2001]
http://ehpnet1.niehs.nih.gov/docs/2001/ 109p173-178daniel/abstract.html
Pentachlorophenol (PCP), hexaehlorocyclohexane-[Alpha], -[Beta], and -[Gamma] (HCH-[Alpha], -[Beta], and -[Gamma]), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and hexachlorobenzene (HCB) are widely distributed industrial chemicals. PCBs are used as components of mobile oils, elastic sealing compounds, dielectric fluids in older transformers, heat exchangers, paints and printing inks, and pesticide extenders and protection colors for concrete (1-3). The fungicidal chemicals PCP and HCH were used in wood preservatives. PCP was banned in Germany in 1989, and the use of HCH-[Gamma] in pesticides was strongly reduced since 1991 (4). HCB is an organochlorine fungicide and is also used as a softening agent for plastics (5). PCBs are inert, lipid-soluble molecules and tend to accumulate in food chains in animals such as fish (6). PCBs accumulate in the human body, and their blood levels can be measured (2,7-10). In cell cultures as well as in animal experiments, all of these substances were toxic for lymphocytes in many studies (11-38), with some notable exceptions (39-43). Although there are reports of immunologic dysfunctions in patients with high exposure to these compounds (44-48), it is controversial whether the chemicals are toxic for humans. The compounds occur as mixtures, and studies on their possible interactive effects are therefore important. In previous studies we demonstrated a suppressive effect of PCP blood levels of [is greater than] 10 [micro]g/L on certain cellular and humoral immune parameters (38,49). To avoid an interference of high PCP levels, we excluded patients with PCP blood levels [is greater than] 10 [micro]g/L from the present analysis.
Materials and Methods
Patients. From 1992 to 1998 blood levels of PCP, PCBs, HCHs, and HCB were determined in 146 patients. Immune parameters were measured in 141 individuals. Two patients were investigated in 1992, 2 in 1993, 6 in 1994, 10 in 1995, 30 in 1996, 44 in 1997, and 52 in 1998. We studied 12 patients at least twice during a mean time interval of 936 days. In these patients, only the results of the last determination were used for statistical analysis. The patients had various clinical symptoms: 82% of the patients complained about a lack of mental concentration, 80% about rapid exhaustion, 50% had frequent common cold diseases, 39% had bronchitis, 14% experienced sleeplessness, 8% had irritations of mucous membranes of the throat and nose, 7% complained about general fatigue, and 2% about nausea. These clinical symptoms are in accordance with other reports of PCP-(50,51) and PCB-exposed patients (52,53). As determined by a questionnaire, 144 of 146 patients in the study were nonsmokers at the time of the investigation because they tried to avoid any contact with pollutants. The mean ([+ or -] 1 SD) age of the, patients was 46.8 [+ or -] 12.5 years (range, 8.6-74.2 years; [is less than or equal to] 18 years, n = 3; [is less than or equal to] 30 years, n = 9; [is less than or equal to] 40 years, n = 36; [is less than or equal to] 50 years, n = 87; [is less than or equal to] 60 years, n = 124); 71 were male and 75 were female. Patients with chronic diseases such as hepatitis B virus infection, renal failure, diabetes mellitus, or rheumatism were excluded from the study. The patients were occupationally exposed to PCBs for more than 6 months. Most of them were teachers, construction workers, or telecommunication technicians who were exposed to PCBs in schools, building sites, or factories. Ninety percent of the patients were exposed to PCBs for more than 20 years. Half of the patients were still exposed at the time of investigation. We did not determine blood levels of chemicals in controls.
Determination of plasma cytokines, soluble cytokine receptors, soluble cytokine receptor antagonists, and soluble adhesion molecules. Values obtained in 40 healthy controls are given in Table 1. Interleukin (IL)-1[Alpha], IL-1[Beta], soluble interleukin receptor antagonist (sIL-[1]RA), IL-2, IL-3, IL-4, IL-6, sIL-6R, IL-8, transforming growth factor (TGF)-[[Beta].sub.2], and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-[Alpha] were measured by ELISA using Quantikine kits (R&D Systems, Firma Biermann, Bad Nauheim, Germany), soluble intercellular adhesion molecule (sICAM)-1 with Cellfree kits (T Cell Diagnostics, Biermann), sIL-2R with Immunotech kits (Dianova, Hamburg, Germany), interferon (IFN)-[Gamma] with HBT kits (Holland Biotechnology BV, Biermann), and IL-10 with Cytoscreen kits (Laboserv, Giessen, Germany). Plasma was snap frozen within 2 hr after blood was drawn and stored at -30 [degrees] C until testing.
Table 1. Mean values for studied parameters in control subjects. Parameter Mean [+ or -] SD IL-1[Alpha] 0 [+ or -] 0 pg/mL IL-1[Beta] 0 [+ or -] 1 pg/mL sIL-1RA 670 [+ or -] 1,164 pg/mL IL-2 24 [+ or -] 38 pg/mL sIL-2R 2,085 [+ or -] 2,126 pg/mL IL-3 27 [+ or -] 50 pg/mL IL-4 6 [+ or -] 17 pg/mL IL-6 2 [+ or -] 12 pg/mL sIL-6R 28,212 [+ or -] 7,836 pg/mL IL-8 51 [+ or -] 128 pg/mL IL-10 0 [+ or -] 1 pg/mL TGF-[[Beta].sub.2] 4 [+ or -] 7 pg/mL IFN-[Gamma] 383 [+ or -] 859 ng/mL sICAM-1 263 [+ or -] 173 pg/mL TNF-[Alpha] 12 [+ or -] 55 pg/mL CD3 1,380 [+ or -] 432 [micro]L CD4 837 [+ or -] 297/[micro]L CD8 451 [+ or -] 176/[micro]L OK-DR 317 [+ or -] 127/[micro]L CD25 119 [+ or -] 57/[micro]L CD16 183 [+ or -] 110/[micro]L CD19 228 [+ or -] 118/[micro]L CD11b 216 [+ or -] 176/[micro]L CD8+/CD56+ NK subset 134 [+ or -] 113/[micro]L Abbreviations: IFN, interferon; IL, interleukin; sICAM-1, soluble intercellular adhesion molecule 1; sIL, soluble IL-1 receptor antagonist; TGF-[[Beta].sub.2], transforming growth factor [[Beta].sub.2]; TNF-[Alpha], tumor necrosis factor [Alpha].
Determination of lymphocyte subpopulations. Lymphocyte subpopulations were determined as described previously (38). The mean [+ or -] 1 SD of the absolute lymphocyte count in 40 healthy controls was 1,804 [+ or -] 576/[micro]L. Other values are given in Table 1. The following panel of antibodies was used: CD3 (OKT3, pan T lymphocytes); CD4 (OKT4, helper/inducer T lymphocyte subset); CD8 (suppressor/cytotoxic T lymphocyte subset); OK-DR (MHC class II positive T and B lymphocytes, monocytes); CD25 (OKT26a, IL-2 receptor positive T lymphocytes); CD16 [OK-NK, natural killer (NK) cells]; CD19 (OKB19, B lymphocytes); CD11b (OKM1, monocytes, granulocytes, NK cells); and CD56 (NK cell subset), all from Ortho (Raritan, NJ, USA). Ten micro-liters of mononuclear antibody were added to 100 [micro]L of whole blood and incubated for 30 min at 4 [degrees] C. Erythrocytes were lysed with [NH.sub.4]Cl. The cells were washed and incubated with 50 [micro]L fluorescein isothyocyanate-conjugated goat-anti-mouse Ig (Medac, Hamburg, Germany) for another 30 min at 4 [degrees] C, washed again, and analyzed with an Ortho Cytoron flow cytometer using the same lymphocyte window for all patients. CD8+/CD56+ NK cell subsets were determined using double fluorescence flow cytometry with a FACScan flow cytometer (Becton Dickinson, Sunnyvale, CA, USA). The mean [+ or -] 1 SD range of the CD4/CD8 ratio was 2.0 [+ or -] 0.6.
Mitogen stimulation and mixed lymphocyte culture. Mononuclear cells obtained from heparinized blood were adjusted to 1 x [10.sup.6] cells/mL in culture medium TC-199 (Gibco, Grand Island, NY, USA) containing 20% heat-inactivated human AB-serum, 20 mM/L HEPES buffer, 100 U/mL penicillin, and 100 [micro]g/mL streptomycin. We tested in vitro stimulation of lymphocytes using pokeweed mitogen (PWM; Gibco, Paisley, Scotland), concanavalin A (Con A; Pharmacia, Uppsala, Sweden), phytohemagglutinin (PHA; Wellcome, Dartford, UK), or OKT3 mAb (anti-CD3; Ortho) in three different concentrations. We assessed the mixed lymphocyte culture (MLC) response using allogeneic MHC-incompatible stimulator cells pooled from three healthy donors. We added 100 [micro]L of irradiated pooled allogeneic stimulator cells ([10.sup.6] cells/mL) to wells of a microtray. All cultures were performed in triplicate by standard methods. Mitogen stimulation assays were incubated at 37 [degrees] C for 3 days and MLCs for 6 days. The cultures were pulsed with 20 [micro]L [sup.3]H-thymidine (1 mCi/mL), harvested after an additional 16 hr, and the incorporation of [sup.3]H-thymidine was measured. We calculated relative reponses (RR) as counts per minute of patient lymphocytes cultured with mitogen minus counts per minute of patient lymphocytes in medium, divided by counts per minute of control lymphocytes cultured with mitogen minus counts per minute of control lymphocytes in medium. The maximum RR of each mitogen was used for statistical analysis. Based on control measurements in 52 healthy individuals, an RR [is less than] 0.5 was considered abnormally low.
Determination of plasma neopterin. Plasma neopterin was measured initially with the neopterin-RIAcid assay and since 1995 with the Neopterin ELISA (Brahms, Berlin, Germany). Based on control measurements in 70 healthy individuals, we considered [is greater than] 15 nmol/L abnormally high for both tests (54).
Enzyme immunoassay for determination of anti-Ig activities. Anti-Ig autoantibodies were determined as previously described (54). We coated 96-well microtiter plates (Nunc, Roskilde, Denmark) at 37 [degrees] C for 16 hr with either 0.5 [micro]g/well of human IgG-Fab (ICN Biochemicals, Costa Mesa, CA, USA) or IgG-F(ab')2 fragments (Dianova). Uncoated sites were blocked for 3 hr at 37 [degrees] C with 1% phosphate-buffered saline-bovine serum albumin.
To determine IgG-anti-Fab and IgG-anti-F(ab')2 activities, 50 [micro]L of 1:64 diluted test serum was added; to determine IgA-anti-Fab and IgA-anti-F(ab')2 activities, 50 mL of 1:32 diluted test serum was added; and to determine IgM-anti-Fab and IgM-anti-F(ab')2 activities, 50 mL of 1:16 diluted test serum was added to the Fab- or F(ab')2-coated wells in the first step. In the second step, the reaction was developed with 50 [micro]L of alkaline phosphatase-conjugated goat antibodies specific for the Fc fragments of IgG, IgA, or IgM molecules (Dianova; working dilutions 1:5000). In all assays phosphate-buffered saline-Tween 0.05% was used as washing buffer and p-nitrophenyl phosphate disodium solution (Sigma Chemical Co., St. Louis, MO, USA) as substrate. All incubation steps with test sera and antibodies were performed at 22 [degrees] C for 1 hr. After each step the plates were washed four times with washing buffer. The optical density (OD) was measured ([+ or -] SEM) at 405 nm using a 340 ATTC Microplate Reader (SLT, Crailsheim, Germany).
Determination of PCP, PCBs, HCB, and HCHs in blood. Blood levels of PCP, PCBs, HCB, and HCHs were determined in the laboratory of K. Bauer (Saarbrucken, Germany) using gas chromatography (Hewlett Packard-GC 5890; Hewlett Packard, Palo Alto, CA, USA). Reference blood levels were determined by calculating the 95% quantile in 2941 randomly selected individuals who did not have a history of exposure to the chemicals.
Statistical analysis. Spearman rank correlation, Wilcoxon signed-rank test, and Fisher's exact test were applied using SPSS (Chicago, IL, USA). Adjustment for multiple testing was done according to the method of Bonferroni.
Results
Most patients were exposed to several of the investigated chemicals as indicated by increased blood levels of these chemicals above background (Table 2). Background blood levels were determined by calculating the 95% quantile in 2,941 randomly selected individuals who did not have a history of exposure to the chemicals. Means and ranges of PCB 101, PCB 138, PCB 153, PCB 180, HCH-[Beta], HCH-[Gamma], and HCB blood levels in patients with PCP blood levels [is less than or equal to] 10 [micro]g/L are shown in Table 2. The blood levels of many compounds were correlated with one another, indicating multiple exposure (Table 3).
Table 2. Number and percentage of patients with PCB, HCB, or HCH blood
levels above background.
No. of patients with
blood level above Mean 5% Quantile
Background level background (%) blood of
of chemical (ng/L)(a) (n = 141) level blood level
PCB 28 < 10 1 (1)
PCB 52 < 10 1 (1)
PCB 101 < 100 0 31.4 13.0
PCB 138 < 500 98 (70) 710.1 269.0
PCB 153 < 600 111 (79) 1025.1 389.0
PCB 180 < 300 107 (76) 599.1 141.0
HCB < 1,000 60 (43) 1109.4 228.7
HCH-[Alpha] <10 0 < 10
HCH-[Beta] <350 13 (9) 256.2 101.0
HCH-[Gamma] <70 6 (4) 26.9 11.0
95% Quantile
Background level of
of chemical (ng/L)(a) blood level
PCB 28 < 10
PCB 52 < 10
PCB 101 < 100 66.0
PCB 138 < 500 1444.0
PCB 153 < 600 2221.0
PCB 180 < 300 1066.0
HCB < 1,000 2973.7
HCH-[Alpha] <10
HCH-[Beta] <350 513.5
HCH-[Gamma] <70 54.9
All patients analyzed had a PCP blood level [is less than] 10
[micro]g/L.
(a) The 95% quantile was defined in 2,941 randomly selected
individuals who did not have a history of exposure to the chemical.
Table 3. Cross-associations (Spearman rank correlations; r) of PCB
101, PCB 138, PCB 153, PCB 180, HCB, PCP, HCH-[Beta], and
HCH-[Gamma] blood levels in 141 patients.
PCB 101 PCB 138 PCB 153 PCB 180
PCB 138 0.247(**)
PCB 153 0.183(*) 0.959(##)
PCB 180 0.201(*) 0.827(##) 0.828(##)
HCB 0.103 0.506(##) 0.473(##) 0.334(##)
PCP 0.166 0.082 0.079 0.051
HCH-[Beta] 0.009 0.471(##) 0.454(##) 0.347(##)
HCH-[Gamma] -0.039 -0.008 0.007 0.004
HCB PCP HCH-[Gamma]
PCB 138
PCB 153
PCB 180
HCB
PCP 0.315(##)
HCH-[Beta] 0.543(##) 0.003
HCH-[Gamma] 0.064 0.154 0.152
All patients analyzed had a PCP blood level [is less than] 10
[micro]g/L.
(*) p [is less than] 0.05; (**) p [is less than] 0.01; (##) p [is
less than] 0.0001.
We found only weak dose-response relationships between blood levels of PCBs, HCHs, or HCB with cellular and humoral immune parameters (Table 4). PCBs were weakly associated with in vitro lymphocyte stimulation and the numbers of lymphocyte subpopulations in the blood, as well as titers of different autoantibody types against immunoglobulin components, whereas HCH-[Beta] (Spearman rank correlation, vs. IL-2: r = 0.182, p = 0.040; vs. IL-10: r = 0.190; p = 0.032), HCH-[Gamma] (Spearman rank correlation, vs. IL-1[Beta]: r = -0.336, p = 0.024), and HCB (Spearman rank correlation, vs. IL-6: r = -0.189, p = 0.036; vs. sIL-1RA: r = 0.197, p = 0.029) were weakly associated with plasma levels of cytokines and cytokine receptor antagonists. The most prominent finding was a strong negative association between HCB and IFN-[Gamma] blood levels (Spearman rank correlation: r = -0.357, p [is less than] 0.0001), indicating that HCB has a significant impact on Th1 lymphocytes (Table 4).
Table 4. Association (Spearman rank correlations) of PCB 101, PCB 138,
PCB 153, PCB 180, HCB, HCH-[Beta], and HCH-[Gamma] plasma levels with
numbers of lymphocyte subpopulations, in vitro lymphocyte response,
plasma cytokine levels, and immunoglobulin autoantibodies in 141
patients.
PCB 101 PCB 138
p (r) p (r)
CD4/CD8 NS NS
CD4/[micro]L 0.017 (0.208) NS
CD16/[micro]L NS NS
CD25/[micro]L 0.029 (0.191) 0.043 (-0.177)
CD8/56/[micro]L 0.023 (-0.495) NS
CD11b/[micro]L NS NS
PHA (RR) NS NS
CD3 mab (RR) NS NS
IL-1[Beta] NS NS
IL-2 NS NS
IL-6 NS NS
IL-10 NS NS
INF-[Gamma] NS NS
TGF-[Beta]2 NS 0.039 (0.194)
sIL-1RA NS NS
IgA-anti-Fab NS NS
IgM-anti-Fab NS 0.004 (-0.271)
IgM-anti-[F(ab').sub.2] NS 0.021 (-0.218)
GGT (U/mL) NS 0.009 (0.238)
PCB 153 PCB 180
p (r) p (r)
CD4/CD8 NS NS
CD4/[micro]L NS NS
CD16/[micro]L NS 0.049 (0.172)
CD25/[micro]L 0.036 (-0.183) NS
CD8/56/[micro]L NS NS
CD11b/[micro]L NS NS
PHA (RR) 0.029 (-0.192) 0.018 (-0.207)
CD3 mab (RR) 0.047 (-0.176) NS
IL-1[Beta] NS NS
IL-2 NS NS
IL-6 NS NS
IL-10 NS NS
INF-[Gamma] NS NS
TGF-[Beta]2 NS 0.035 (0.199)
sIL-1RA NS NS
IgA-anti-Fab NS 0.021 (0.219)
IgM-anti-Fab 0.001 (-0.307) 0.004 (-0.272)
IgM-anti-[F(ab').sub.2] 0.006 (-0.256) 0.041 (-0.193)
GGT (U/mL) 0.017 (0.217) 0.050 (0.179)
HCB HCH-[Beta]
p (r) p (r)
CD4/CD8 NS NS
CD4/[micro]L NS NS
CD16/[micro]L NS NS
CD25/[micro]L NS NS
CD8/56/[micro]L NS NS
CD11b/[micro]L NS NS
PHA (RR) NS NS
CD3 mab (RR) NS NS
IL-1[Beta] NS NS
IL-2 NS 0.040 (0.182)
IL-6 0.036 (-0.189) NS
IL-10 NS 0.032 (0.190)
INF-[Gamma] 0.0001(a) (-0.357) NS
TGF-[Beta]2 NS NS
sIL-1RA 0.029 (0.197) NS
IgA-anti-Fab NS NS
IgM-anti-Fab NS NS
IgM-anti-[F(ab').sub.2] NS NS
GGT (U/mL) NS 0.016 (0.218)
HCH-[Gamma]
p (r)
CD4/CD8 0.035 (-0.183)
CD4/[micro]L NS
CD16/[micro]L NS
CD25/[micro]L NS
CD8/56/[micro]L NS
CD11b/[micro]L 0.015 (0.366)
PHA (RR) NS
CD3 mab (RR) NS
IL-1[Beta] 0.024 (-0.336)
IL-2 NS
IL-6 NS
IL-10 NS
INF-[Gamma] NS
TGF-[Beta]2 NS
sIL-1RA NS
IgA-anti-Fab NS
IgM-anti-Fab NS
IgM-anti-[F(ab').sub.2] NS
GGT (U/mL) NS
Abbreviations: GGT, [Gamma]-glutamyl transpeptidase; NS, not
significant. Only p-values [is less than] 0.05 are listed. p-Values
were calculated using the Spearman rank correlation test. Adjustment
for multiple testing was done according to the method of Bonferroni.
All patients analyzed had a PCP blood level of [is less than] 10
[micro]g/L.
(a) Significant (p [is less than] 0.05) after adjustment for multiple
testing (analyzed parameters; n = 38).
When we calculated the frequency of individuals with impaired (below the mean -1 SD level) immune parameters in relation to blood levels above the mean, there were few associations that remained significant after adjustment for multiple testing (n = 38 analyzed parameters). Patients with HCB blood levels above the mean of 1,109 ng/L more often had undetectable IFN-[Gamma] blood levels than patients below the mean (23/52 vs. 11/72; Fisher's exact test: p = 0.0005). Patients with increased PCB 138 ([is greater than] 710 ng/L) more frequently had undetectable IL-4 blood levels than patients with PCB 138 below the mean (29/47 vs. 23/78; Fisher's exact test: p = 0.0007), and patients with increased PCB 101 ([is greater than] 31 ng/L) more often had low DR+ cell counts in the blood ([is less than] 190/[micro]L) than patients with PCB 101 below the mean (12/50 vs. 2/81; Fisher's exact test: p = 0.0002).
To assess possible cumulative effects, we compared patients who had blood levels of all compounds below background with patients who had blood levels of all compounds above background. Patients with low or absent blood levels of the chemicals studied had higher T lymphocyte counts (CD3/[micro]L: 1,772 [+ or -] 606 vs. 1,297 [+ or -] 496; p = 0.051), higher IFN-[Gamma] plasma levels (IFN-[Gamma]: 638 [+ or -] 737 pg/mL vs. 178 [+ or -] 313 pg/mL; p = 0.016), and lower GGT plasma levels ([Gamma]-glutamyl transpeptidase; 8 [+ or -] 2 U/mL vs. 15 [+ or -] 9 U/mL; p = 0.055), which provides some evidence for a cumulative effect of several weakly active compounds (Table 5).
Table 5. Immune and enzymatic parameters (means [+ or -] 1 SD) of
patients with blood levels of all compounds below background versus
immune and enzymatic parameters of patients with blood levels of all
compounds above background.
Patients with blood
levels of all
compounds
Below background
Parameter (n = 9)
Lymphocytes/[micro]L 2,357 [+ or -] 897
CD3/[micro]L 1,772 [+ or -] 648
CD4/[micro]L 1,120 [+ or -] 539
CD8/[micro]L 537 [+ or -] 207
CD16/[micro]L 259 [+ or -] 279
CD19/[micro]L 305 [+ or -] 157
CD25/[micro]L 128 [+ or -] 62
DR/[micro]L 384 [+ or -] 127
Con A (RR) 1.2 [+ or -] 0.9
PHA (RR) 2.0 [+ or -] 2.9
PWM (RR) 1.7 [+ or -] 1.8
CD3 mab (RR) 7.5 [+ or -] 13.7
MLC (RR) 2.1 [+ or -] 1.6
Neopterin (nmol/L) 21 [+ or -] 37
IL-1[Alpha] (pg/mL) 1 [+ or -] 1
IL-1[Beta] (pg/mL) 1 [+ or -] 1
sIL-1RA (pg/mL) 431 [+ or -] 145
IL-2 (pg/mL) 10 [| or -] 10
sIL-2R (pg/mL) 1,919 [+ or -] 1,422
IL-3 (pg/mL) 68 [+ or -] 146
IL-4 (pg/mL) 87 [+ or -] 247
IL-6 (pg/mL) 216 [+ or -] 442
sIL-6R (pg/mL) 35,781 [+ or -] 17,854
IL-8 (pg/mL) 49 [+ or -] 12
IL-10 (pg/mL) 3 [+ or -] 5
TNF-[Alpha] (pg/mL) 41 [+ or -] 72
TGF-[[Beta].sub.2] (pg/mL) 2 [+ or -] 2
IFN-[Gamma] (pg/mL) 638 [+ or -] 737
sICAM-1 ([micro]g/mL) 185 [+ or -] 42
SGOT (U/mL) 10 [+ or -] 7
GPT (U/mL) 14 [+ or -] 10
GGT (U/mL) 8 [+ or -] 3
IgA-anti-Fab (OD) 0.1 [+ or -] 0.1
IgA-anti-[F(ab').sub.2] (OD) 0.1 [+ or -] 0.1
IgG-anti-Fab (OD) 0.4 [+ or -] 0.4
IgG-anti-[F(ab').sub.2] (OD) 0.7 [+ or -] 0.4
IgM-anti-Fab (OD) 0.2 [+ or -] 0.1
IgM-anti-[F(ab').sub.2] (OD) 0.1 [+ or -] 0.1
Above background
Parameter (n = 40) P
Lymphocytes/[micro]L 1,868 [+ or -] 824 NS
CD3/[micro]L 1,297 [+ or -] 502 0.051
CD4/[micro]L 788 [+ or -] 323 NS
CD8/[micro]L 466 [+ or -] 250 NS
CD16/[micro]L 243 [+ or -] 143 NS
CD19/[micro]L 250 [+ or -] 234 NS
CD25/[micro]L 114 [+ or -] 113 NS
DR/[micro]L 360 [+ or -] 351 NS
Con A (RR) 1.1 [+ or -] 0.5 NS
PHA (RR) 0.9 [+ or -] 0.5 NS
PWM (RR) 1.4 [+ or -] 1.0 NS
CD3 mab (RR) 3.1 [+ or -] 6.6 NS
MLC (RR) 1.4 [+ or -] 2.0 NS
Neopterin (nmol/L) 8 [+ or -] 4 NS
IL-1[Alpha] (pg/mL) 1 [+ or -] 1 n.s
IL-1[Beta] (pg/mL) 0 NS
sIL-1RA (pg/mL) 646 [+ or -] 704 NS
IL-2 (pg/mL) 12 [+ or -] 11 NS
sIL-2R (pg/mL) 2,192 [+ or -] 2,021 NS
IL-3 (pg/mL) 16 [+ or -] 26 NS
IL-4 (pg/mL) 5 [+ or -] 11 NS
IL-6 (pg/mL) 62 [+ or -] 112 NS
sIL-6R (pg/mL) 30,498 [+ or -] 14,369 NS
IL-8 (pg/mL) 37 [+ or -] 43 NS
IL-10 (pg/mL) 14 [+ or -] 48 NS
TNF-[Alpha] (pg/mL) 78 [+ or -] 245 NS
TGF-[[Beta].sub.2] (pg/mL) 12 [+ or -] 20 NS
IFN-[Gamma] (pg/mL) 178 [+ or -] 318 0.016
sICAM-1 ([micro]g/mL) 348 [+ or -] 146 NS
SGOT (U/mL) 10 [+ or -] 3 NS
GPT (U/mL) 14 [+ or -] 7 NS
GGT (U/mL) 15 [+ or -] 10 0.055
IgA-anti-Fab (OD) 0.2 [+ or -] 0.1 NS
IgA-anti-[F(ab').sub.2] (OD) 0.2 [+ or -] 0.2 NS
IgG-anti-Fab (OD) 0.3 [+ or -] 0.3 NS
IgG-anti-[F(ab').sub.2] (OD) 0.6 [+ or -] 0.4 NS
IgM-anti-Fab (OD) 0.1 [+ or -] 0.1 NS
IgM-anti-[F(ab').sub.2] (OD) 0.1 [+ or -] 0.1 NS
Abbreviations: GPT, glutamic pyruvic transaminase; NS, not
significant; SGOT, serum glutamic--oxaloacetic transaminase; sICAM-1,
soluble intercellular adhesion molecule 1. All patients analyzed had a
PCP blood level [is less than] 10 [micro]g/L. Background levels: PCB
138 [is less than] 500 ng/L, PCB 153 [is less than] 600 ng/L, PCB 180
[is less than] 300 ng/L, HCB [is less than] 1,000 ng/L.
We studied 12 patients twice during a mean time interval of 936 days. HCH-[Gamma] blood levels decreased from a mean of 36.3 ng/L to a mean of 19.2 ng/L (p = 0.033), whereas the mean PCB 153 blood level increased from 857.0 ng/L to 1024.4 ng/L (p = 0.050). The blood levels of the other chemicals were not significantly different between the two measurements, suggesting rather constant exposure (Table 6).
Table 6. Blood levels (mean [+ or -] 1 SD) of PCB 101, PCB 138, PCB
153, PCB 180, HCB, HCH-[Beta], and HCH-[Gamma] in 12 patients who were
tested twice (mean time interval, 936 days).
First determination Second determination
PCB 101 (ng/L) 46.5 [+ or -] 26.7 28.9 [+ or -] 16.4
PCB 138 (ng/L) 598.0 [+ or -] 160.1 700.5 [+ or -] 315.9
PCB 153 (ng/L) 857.0 [+ or -] 261.2 1024.4 [+ or -] 518.1
PCB 180 (ng/L) 437.0 [+ or -] 191.5 474.0 [+ or -] 296.9
HCB (ng/L) 1240.8 [+ or -] 1150.4 879.4 [+ or -] 461.9
HCH-[Beta] (ng/L) 188.0 [+ or -] 66.4 186.0 [+ or -] 58.6
HCH-[Gamma] (ng/L) 36.3 [+ or -] 25.6 19.2 [+ or -] 9.2
P
PCB 101 (ng/L) 0.221
PCB 138 (ng/L) 0.084
PCB 153 (ng/L) 0.050
PCB 180 (ng/L) 0.610
HCB (ng/L) 0.155
HCH-[Beta] (ng/L) 0.625
HCH-[Gamma] (ng/L) 0.033
p-Values were calculated using the Wilcoxon signed-ranks test. All
patients analyzed had a PCP blood level [is less than] 10 [micro]g/L.
Discussion
PCP, PCBs, HCB, and HCHs are incorporated into human tissues transdermally or via inhalation, or they can become part of the food chain and accumulate in the body, especially in lipophilic body tissues. During periods of starvation or after cessation of exposure, the chemicals are redistributed to the blood from lipophilic tissues. Long-term, low-dose exposure is suspected to cause clinical symptoms, such as chronic infections of the upper respiratory tract, general fatigue, and neurotoxicity.
In this study we analyzed individuals with a documented history of PCB, HCB, and HCH exposure who had PCP blood levels in the background range of [is less than or equal to] 10 [micro]g/L. Because PCP was shown in previous studies to be strongly associated with humoral and cellular dysfunction, we excluded individuals with PCP blood levels [is greater than] 10 [micro]g/L from the analysis (38,49). The blood levels of PCBs, HCB, and HCHs were often associated with one another, suggesting simultaneous exposure, making it difficult to dissociate the impact of individual compounds. The observed positive and negative associations of cellular and humoral immune parameters with blood levels of PCBs, HCB, and HCHs were relatively weak, with the exception of a strongly negative association of IFN-[Gamma] with HCB. This finding indicates that HCB has a significant impact on Th1 lymphocytes in vivo. IFN-[Gamma], which is produced by Th1 lymphocytes, is involved in the induction of cellular immune responses against antigens such as viruses by activating NK cells, monocytes/macrophages, and granulocytes, and in humoral immune responses by increasing the immunoglobulin secretion of plasma cells. Impaired IFN-[Gamma] production might favor infections. These data are in agreement with reports that oral exposure to HCB at concentrations of 150 and 450 mg/kg food for 6 weeks suppressed NK activity in rat lungs in a dose-related manner (56). Immunotoxic effects of HCB on the pathogenesis of systemic, pneumonic, and hepatic viral infections were described in the mouse (57). Moreover, HCB has been reported to suppress humoral and cell-mediated immunity to protozoan (malaria and leishmania) infections and to tumor cell challenges in the mouse (58). Gram-negative endotoxin (Salmonella typhosa) sensitivity in PCB- and HCB-treated mice was increased 5.2- and 32-fold, respectively (59). Mice fed PCB or HCB for 3-6 weeks and inoculated with Plasmodium berghei had decreased survival times (59). Workers exposed to HCB showed an impaired lytic activity of neutrophils in the presence of Candida albicans and Candida pseudotropicalis (60). It is noteworthy that NK cells seem to have a role in the pathogenesis of chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS) (61) and that patients with CFS showed elevated HCB serum levels (62). The incidence of HCB contamination ([is greater than] 2.0 ppb) was 45% in a CFS group compared with 21% in a non-CFS control group (p [is less than] 0.05) (62).
The impact of HCB on humoral immune responses is controversial, especially concerning autoimmune responses. Our finding of a positive association of IgA-anti-Fab serum autoantibodies and the lack of an association of IgG-anti-Fab and IgG-anti-F(ab')2 with HCB blood levels are in partial agreement with observations describing dose-dependent increases of serum levels of IgM, IgA, and autoantigen-specific IgM as well as unchanged levels of IgG and IgG autoantibody levels in rats given HCB in their diet (13,63). The negative associations of IgM-anti-Fab and IgM-anti-F(ab')2 with PCBs in our patients vary with findings in animals on IgM responses against single-stranded DNA, native DNA, rat IgG (representing rheumatoid factor), and bromelain-treated mouse erythrocytes (13). However, others reported that antibody synthesis to sheep red blood cells was significantly depressed in PCB- and HCB-treated mice, and serum IgA concentrations were consistently 40-80 mg/dL lower than controls (59). The ability of HCB to elevate serum antibody levels against autoantigens but not against foreign antigens suggests that HCB does not act as a polyclonal B cell activator (13). HCB activates rat splenic B-1 cells committed to produce autoantibodies associated with systemic autoimmune diseases (13,64). It is of interest that increased IgG and IgM serum levels were reported in HCB-exposed workers (65). However, the workers were not examined for the presence of autoimmune phenomena.
The weak associations of PCBs, HCB, and HCHs with immunologic abnormalities described herein are in stark contrast to the striking abnormalities observed in individuals with high blood levels of PCP (38,49). The clinical relevance of HCB-associated suppression of IFN-[Gamma] awaits further clarification.
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Address correspondence to V. Daniel, Institute of Immunology, University of Heidelberg, Im Neuenheimer Feld 305, D-60120 Heidelberg, Germany. Telephone: +49 6221 56 4018. Fax: +49 6221 56 4200. E-mail: Volker_Daniel@ med.uni-heidelberg.de
We acknowledge the skillful technical assistance of G. Schmeckenbecher, N. Cetinkaya, M. KutscheBauer, C. Hoffmann, R. Seemuth, and N. Schwind.
Received 31 March 2000; accepted 28 September 2000.
Volker Daniel,(1) Wolfgang Huber,(2) Klausdieter Bauer,(3) Caner Suesal,(1) Christian Conradt,(4) and Gerhard Opelz(1)
(1) Department of Transplantation Immunology, Institute of Immunology, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany; (2) private Practice, Heidelberg-Wieblingen, Germany; (3) Labor PD Dr. K. Bauer, Saarbrucken, Germany; (4) Institute of Medical Biometry, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
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