Preparing the next generation: Social justice in outdoor leadership education and training

Warren, Karen

This article calls for attention to social justice issues in the education and training of future outdoor leaders. A look at the literature on race, gender, and class sensitive outdoor leadership and a critique of traditional avenues of outdoor leader preparation is offered. Recommendations for training race, gender, and class sensitive outdoor leaders are given.

Keywords: Outdoor leadership, adventure education, social justice, diversity, multicultural education

An impassioned cry for social justice in outdoor experiential education programs has echoed strongly in recent years. Outdoor experiential education programs need staff who can be responsive to social justice issues in their teaching and leading. However, a clear articulation of equitable outdoor leadership practice and leader training methods is absent in the field. Outdoor leaders who are well trained in communication and group leadership skills, and highly experienced in technical skills, are often at a loss as to how to address social justice issues that arise on courses. Unfortunately, little research or practical direction has been available to those educating our next generation of outdoor adventure leaders.

This article will explore the nature of race, gender, and class sensitive outdoor leadership in the contemporary outdoor adventure field in the United States. Derived from a qualitative study designed to find out how outdoor leaders can be trained to be race, class and gender sensitive in practice (Warren, 1999) and the current outdoor leadership literature, the article will question ways in which outdoor adventure practitioners and administrators have approached traditional training methods for outdoor leadership. Suggested directions for training race, gender, and class sensitive outdoor instructors will also be described.

Current State of Race, Gender, and Class Sensitive Outdoor Leadership

Race, gender and/or class sensitive outdoor leadership refers to a capacity to assist outdoor adventure group members toward mutually agreed upon goals while recognizing, accounting for, and acting on the power differentials in existence due to racism, sexism, and "classism."1

A study funded by the National Outdoor Leadership School (NOLS) examining racial and ethnic diversity in wilderness use and education (Benepe, 1992) brought up important questions about whether it is possible to adhere to the organizational mission and still serve a more diverse audience, and if not-for-profit organizations can afford to recruit and retain quality, minority staff. The report suggested training people of color who will, in turn, serve as role models and spokespeople, and providing sensitivity training in diversity for the NOLS community.

Roberts' (1996) chapter on women of color in the outdoors concluded that more role models, internships with distinct mentoring relationships, and career days in schools that encourage women of color to pursue nontraditional fields would be advantageous to furthering racial and ethnic diversity in outdoor leadership (p. 234). These opportunities for leadership would be found in more community-based settings where people of color reside. Ashley (1990) advocated recruiting more minority leaders who, in turn, can return to their communities to recruit participants of color. Meyer (1994) argued for a cultural focus in wilderness programming and specifically urged educators "to expand the cultural discussion beyond shallow expressions of tolerance and diversity" (p. 11).

Writing about wilderness therapy for women, Asher, Huffaker and McNally (1994) questioned the relevance of traditional wilderness courses for African American women and suggested fundamental changes to adapt them to people of color. They advocated for Afro-centric values of family, harmony of nature, spontaneity, same-- race support systems, and creative expression to be represented on a course to honor cultural differences. Leaders, therefore, must be trained to recognize and value cultural differences and wilderness courses must be "facilitated by persons not only trained in wilderness survival but also in cultural multiplicity" (Asher et al., p. 171).

Finally, while most of the literature on race and outdoor experiential education acknowledges the problems in the field, race sensitive leadership on outdoor courses has not been extensively defined, taught to leaders, or practiced. Literature focuses more on how to develop outdoor leadership opportunities for people of color than on creating race sensitive outdoor leadership, especially as it relates to self-awareness of white privilege by outdoor leaders.2

Gender studies in outdoor leadership have been more prevalent and, in many ways, have broken the silence about addressing social justice issues in the outdoors. Many authors have undertaken a gender analysis of outdoor leadership and teaching (Bartley, 1987; Beale, 1988; Bell, 1993, 1996; Dorfman, 1994; Henderson, 1996; Jordan, 1988, 1991, 1992; Mitten, 1985, 1986; Mitten & Dutton, 1993; Warren & Rheingold, 1996). The significant body of writings about women outdoors has set the parameters of dialogue within the field to include issues focusing on social identity. Therefore, the discussion of gender sensitive outdoor leadership has evolved much further than any attempts to address race or class sensitive leadership.

Loeffler's (1995) comprehensive study on women outdoor leaders showed a substantial glass ceiling for women in the outdoor professions, including significant pay disparities, the influence of homophobia, the lack of role models, the lack of opportunities to develop skills, and a generally unsupportive climate for advancement. Humberstone (1996) concurred, "There is still a significant under representation of female 'role models' in leadership and decision-making positions in outdoor education" (p. 48).

While analysis of leadership in the outdoors has attempted to show the benefits of a feminist outdoor leadership style, there is little in the mainstream outdoor leadership literature to suggest that gender sensitivity training is beneficial and desirable for outdoor leaders in general. Until a widely articulated demand for gender-responsible outdoor leadership exists in the literature and practice, this aspect of social justice training in programs will continue to be piecemeal at best.

Leadership research that addresses class inequities on outdoor courses has been unexplored mainly due to the reluctance to examine social class issues in U.S. society (Collins & Yeskel, 2000). Class sensitivity in outdoor adventure programs is constrained by the elitist nature of outdoor leadership as a career path. Rather than hiring someone who has developed the necessary wilderness skills on her/his own, many programs favor instructor candidates who have graduated from their own instructor training programs that cost hundreds or thousands of dollars. Even those with limited resources who try to creatively gain access to a career in outdoor leadership face daunting hurdles. Benepe (1992) ties this to race by pointing out that, "(People of color) find it difficult to work as unpaid interns as their white counterparts often do, in order to gain valuable experience and as a result do not possess the same skills and qualifications" (p. 3).

Increased concerns about liability and program safety have established a trend toward requiring outdoor leaders to be more highly trained in wilderness first aid (Woodard, 1998). Problematically, education and training costs are not commensurate with pay given to entry-level outdoor leaders. It has been suggested that positions in outdoor adventure arose from the summer camp movement and were originally viewed as seasonal where, "early staff were middle/upper class who can afford to take a summer or two, or a year or two off to do something exciting and fun because they can be subsidized by family" (AEElist, February 21, 1998). This model of employment based on class privilege became entrenched so that low pay and lack of benefits are the norm rather than the exception in the field, and lack of financial security is a reason why some people leave the profession (Priest & Gass, 1997). Furthermore, a gender disparity in pay for outdoor leaders exists in the field. One study (Loeffler, 1995) found that the modal salary range for full-time, female outdoor program directors was $25,000-$29,000, while it was over $45,000 for male directors.

For many poor and working class people, the idea of paying for the training and education necessary to enter an outdoor leadership profession, which does not provide financial security, is incomprehensible. Consequently, the field is staffed primarily by those with enough financial support to make do with substandard wages and benefits.

As demonstrated by this brief literature review, issues of race, gender and class in outdoor adventure leadership warrant attention. However, as outlined in the next section, the traditional training and development of outdoor leaders has not been responsive to this need.

A Critique of Traditional Outdoor Leadership Training

Contemporary training for outdoor leadership has occurred through several distinct avenues. Outdoor leaders have found training opportunities in: (a) college/university leadership preparation programs, (b) outdoor leadership training field schools, (c) staff training as a part of an outdoor program, and (d) self-directed training.

College/University Leadership Preparation Programs

College and universities have served as training sites through the rise of curricular and co-curricular outdoor programs. The establishment of the content of outdoor curricula has historically been directed by the influential outdoor faculty affiliated with the school (Gass, 1990). Therefore, the advent of social justice issues into the college-based curriculum has been predicated largely on the personal commitment of the faculty member teaching the outdoor curriculum. Citing examples from the leisure studies field, Aguilar and Washington (1990) point out that multicultural education is needed for faculty because they are, themselves, the products of a system where such education has been historically absent, and suggest faculty development in cultural diversity as a first step to infuse a social justice perspective in the field.

Only more recently, as more textbooks are needed for the emerging outdoor leadership courses, have written materials for the general outdoor practitioner been developed. The texts that might be used in teaching outdoor leadership at the college level have largely ignored social justice education as a curricular component. Table 1 shows some commonly used outdoor leadership texts and gives examples of how social justice is addressed.

Outdoor Leadership Training Field Schools

The field programs such as NOLS, Outward Bound, and the Wilderness Education Association (WEA), offer instructor training courses up to three months long. As an instructors course from one of these renown schools is highly valued in hiring new outdoor staff, attention to social justice training here would raise the standards in the field as to what constitutes a well trained outdoor leader and relieve some of the pressure to train socially-- just leaders in the short time of staff training. However, the attention of these instructor training programs to issues of race, gender, and class has been sporadic at best.

Barriers to the introduction and delivery of social justice training in the field programs have included lack of support by upper management, the desire to avoid the "messiness" of learning about social justice on a personal level, and the tendency to expect members of targeted groups to spearhead social justice initiatives and trainings. As few organizations use prior anti-bias work or social justice training as a criteria for hiring, and most collegiate or field program training is often not specific enough to cover social justice issues, then the responsibility to provide education about social justice issues in the outdoors often falls to in-house staff training.

Outdoor Program Staff Training

The final leadership preparation opportunity before outdoor leaders work with clients is usually the hiring program's staff training. Social justice training is critical in this phase but is constrained by time limitations, resource availability, and program access to trained social justice facilitators who understand the outdoor field. Year to year turnover of staff also prevents progressive training experiences that build on each other.

The content of a race, gender and class sensitive outdoor leadership staff training session has not been widely articulated. A prototype social justice training session (Warren, 1999) is elaborated in Table 2. This model would be most suited to outdoor adventure program staff training but could be adapted to other settings.

Implications and Recommendations for Practice

In order to educate the next generation of race, gender, and class sensitive outdoor leaders, all partners in outdoor leadership training will need to make changes that impact practice. The following recommendations range from suggestions for individual training, to steps that outdoor adventure organizations can take in making their education and training more sensitive to social justice.

Cover Training Objectives of Social justice Education

Training to assist outdoor leaders to be race, gender, and class sensitive must cover four areas: intention, selfawareness, intervention, and information. These areas are consistent with the teaching objectives used in social justice education courses (Adams, 1992) .

Intention is the process by which outdoor leaders understand why they might want to be "socially-just" practitioners. As it involves value formulation, this area is the most difficult, if not impossible, to teach. Personal experience, which cannot be easily replicated in a training session, often has a significant role in an instructor's motivation to practice socially-just outdoor leadership. Some authors suggest that transformative learning cannot occur without building alliances or friendships across differences (Spelman, 1988; Welp, 1997) . Outdoor leadership training that facilitates ally-building across differences is a way to enhance intention. The use of "speak outs," where a targeted social group states how they need the dominant group to be allies with them, has proven effective (see Warren & Flippo, 2001).

Self-awareness is a second individual training objective suggested. For instructors in dominant culture groups, self-awareness relates to understanding how their own positions of privilege affect their outdoor leadership practice. For targeted group members, awareness of their own internalized oppressions would be useful. For all leaders, facilitated training that helps them recognize and deal with their biases and prejudices would provide guidance. For example, one outdoor program uses a panel presentation by kids of color who are clients of the program to address ways instructors could make them feel more included (Wilderness School Staff Training, 1999).

Acquisition of intervention skills and opportunities for activism on social justice issues are also important objectives of training. Role-playing can be an effective tool in teaching intervention skills as it allows leaders to practice the type of thinking and response necessary to apply in the moment when the problematic behavior arises. Opportunities to act on their newly learned social justice knowledge and value formation are also important for leaders (Tatum, 1992). One example would be an outdoor leadership class assignment in which the students write a letter to an outdoor company or magazine, critiquing its literature as it pertains to social justice and making suggestions for change.

A final training objective is the dissemination of information about privilege and oppression as it concerns the outdoor field. Providing leaders with information about learning styles, racial identity development, cultural norms, and social history as it pertains to targeted groups is valuable.

Use Experiential Education Methodology

The traditional way social justice training is delivered in general, and in outdoors programs in particular, has been to "stand and deliver" information rather than delve into the attitudinal and behavioral realm. Teachers of future outdoor leaders should use the powerful tools of experiential education to teach about social justice. Popular group initiatives adapted and framed to address social justice issues, cross-cultural simulations, and journals are some effective tools.

Offer Outdoor Social Justice Training in All Avenues Open to Future Outdoor Leaders

As time barriers are a factor in staff training, it might be advantageous to the field for other outdoor leadership preparation systems to assume some of the responsibility for training race, gender, and class sensitive outdoor leaders. Collegiate programs offer the most potential given their longer time frame and the trend toward social justice education in higher education. Several colleges and universities have demonstrated an effective model in integrating social justice concerns into outdoor leadership courses and curricula. For example, Prescott College offers "Gender Responsible Adventure Education" and "Women's Topics in Wilderness Leadership." Hampshire College has "Women and Girls in the Outdoors," and Warren Wilson College has "Women's Voices in Experiential Education" which all offer an integrated look at gender concerns in the outdoor field. Similar courses addressing race, class and other "isms" would shift some of the responsibility of training socially just outdoor leaders from the staff trainings in field programs to the collegiate preparation programs.

As self-education is also a preparation path for outdoor leaders, enhanced availability of workshops and independent training on social justice in the outdoors benefits those who get training on their own. Greater availability of literature on socially-just outdoor leadership would also assist the self-educator.

Time and resource pressure affect the other outdoor leadership "preparers" as well. Spreading the responsibility would make it less likely that social justice training would fall strictly to outdoor programs' staff training sessions.

Develop Outdoor Leadership Literature that Reflects the Growing Concern for Social Justice in the Field

An exigency for outdoor leadership preparation texts that cover social justice topics exists. Often, it is the content of the course text that determines the topics covered in classes. Professors in higher education who want to include social justice issues in outdoor leadership-related courses must have curricular materials that support their intention.

Additionally, the accreditation standards in the field must be made consistent with the current thinking about social justice. The outdoor experiential education field could follow the lead of teacher education professional organizations in requiring evidence of social justice education in curricula (Gollnick, 1992; Weiner, 1993). Program accreditation standards might include social justice criteria in the staff qualifications and program management sections.

Make Social Justice Training a Consistent Part of Hiring Criteria in the Field

Having value assigned to anti-bias and social justice skills in the hiring process might encourage prospective outdoor instructors to obtain the necessary social justice training to be race, gender, and class sensitive outdoor leaders. Therefore, hiring criteria for program staff at all levels should require experience or training in social justice work. Evaluation of staff could include an assessment of their ability to deal constructively with issues of oppression and inclusion. Promotion could be linked to competence in this area in addition to the others currently assessed.

Make Social Justice Training a Consistent Part of Training Delivery in the Field

A pervasive attitude in the outdoor adventure field is that social justice education can't happen until groups are diverse, which usually refers to racial diversity. This faulty thinking makes it difficult to cultivate the seeds of cultural sensitivity before inviting people from targeted groups to join, instead, subtly insisting that targeted people be at the table before privileged groups can work on social justice concerns.

A starting point to address racial issues in all white groups would be to examine white racial identity development. Work by Helms (1990) and Hardiman (1994) on theory, and McIntosh (1990) and Tatum (1992) on practice, would be a useful foundation for training about white racial identity and white privilege. It would also connect with the examination of male privilege and middle/upper class privilege.

Share Social justice Practice in Formal Networks

Staff training ideas, practices, and materials (if they exist in the field leadership programs) are often localized and program dependent. Sharing of training resources is often through informal networks and workshop handouts. More formalized networks of resource exchange are clearly needed. Examples of networks might include: subgroups of professionals interested in social justice meeting at conferences; advanced social justice practitioner workshops; an electronic mail list for people interested in social justice concerns in the field; collaborations between the professional groups of AEE that have a social identity foundation; and national forums on social justice co-sponsored by the prominent outdoor adventure organizations. In addition, the literature about social justice in outdoor experiential education must be substantially expanded to include: Production and publication of curriculum guides, cultural narratives and success stories; inspirational guides and quote books representing targeted groups; outdoor leader training literature that is inclusive of social justice issues; and staff training and policy manuals that give attention to race, gender, and class sensitive outdoor leadership.

Summary

Preparation of race, gender, and class sensitive outdoor leaders requires a partnership between collegiate programs, field program instructors courses, program staff training, and avenues of self-education based on readily available social justice resources in the outdoor adventure field. Development of socially just outdoor leadership texts, professional standards, and curricula is one step in the process. Clearly, advocates for social justice education must be present in the faculties of collegiate programs and the administration of field programs for race, gender, and class sensitive outdoor leadership training to occur. Whether the impetus will come from students and staff shaping the direction of education and training, or the ethos in the field changing due to the evolving demographics and social conditions, only time will tell.

This article has focused on the preparation of race, gender, and class sensitive outdoor leaders, but more research is needed on the effectiveness of social justice training in outdoor programs, the nature of social justice competencies, and the development of ways to assess how well programs have integrated social justice in practice. As the social identities of those participating in outdoor programs becomes more diverse, having leaders well versed in social justice issues will pay immense dividends in creating a leadership practice that includes all.

Notes

1 While social justice can be defined as "intentional steps that move society in the direction of equality, support for diversity, economic justice, participatory democracy, environmental harmony, and waging and resolving conflicts nonviolently" (Lakey, Lakey, Napier, & Robinson, 1995, p. 5.), this article will narrowly focus on issues of race, class, and gender in outdoor experiential education. Certainly other social justice issues such as age, ability, religion, sexual orientation, national origin, environmental justice, etc., are also important but are not the focus of this paper.

2 Bill Proudman has contributed important work in examining white male privilege as it relates to facilitation in general (Proudman, 1998). While dealing with organizational change and not outdoor leadership specifically, this work has broad applications.

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Karen Warren

Karen Warren, Ph. D., teaches in the Outdoors Program/Recreational Athletics department at Hampshire College, Amherst, MA, 01002. She can be reached at kwCC@hampshire.edu. Or 413-559-5470.

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