New work on modern Irish drama and theater, 1997-2002: an overview

BOOK-LENGTH CRITICAL AND HISTORICAL STUDIES:

Grene, Nicholas. The Politics of Irish Drama: Plays in Context from Boucicault to Friel. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999.

Harrington, John P. The Irish Play on the New York Stage, 1874-1966. Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 1997.

Mac Anna, Tomas. Fallaing Aonghusa: Saol Amharclainne. Baile Atha Cliath: An Clochomhar Tta, 2000. (1)

McDonald, Ronan. Tragedy and Irish Literature: Synge, O'Casey, Beckett. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002.

Morash, Christopher. A History of Irish Theatre, 1601-2000. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002.

Murray, Christopher. Twentieth-Century Irish Drama: Mirror up to Nation. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1997.

Pilkington, Lionel. Theatre and the State in Twentieth-Century Ireland: Cultivating the People. London: Routledge, 2001.

Rattigan, Dermot. Theatre of Sound: Radio and the Dramatic Imagination. Dublin: Carysfort Press, 2002.

Richards, Shaun. The Drama of Ireland: An Infinite Rehearsal. London: Palgrave Macmillan, forthcoming. (2)

Trotter, Mary. Ireland's National Theaters: Political Performance and the Origins of the Irish Dramatic Movement. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 2001.

Welch, Robert. The Abbey Theatre, 1899-1999: Form and Pressure. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999.

ILLUSTRATED THEATER HISTORY STUDIES:

O'Neill, Michael J. The Abbey at the Queen's: The Interregnum Years 1951-1966. Nepean, Ontario: Borealis, 1999.

Ryan, Philip B. The Lost Theatres of Dublin. Westbury, Wiltshire: Badger Press, 1998.

ANTHOLOGIES OF CRITICISM AND THEATER HISTORY:

Bolger, Dermot, ed. Druids, Dudes, and Beauty Queens: The Changing Face of Irish Theatre. Dublin: New Island Press, 2002.

Chambers, Lilian, Ger Fitzgibbon, and Eamonn Jordan, eds. Theatre Talk: Voices of Irish Theatre Practitioners. Dublin: Carysfort Press, 2002.

Harrington, John P., and Elizabeth J. Mitchell, eds. Politics and Performance in Contemporary Northern Ireland. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press in cooperation with American Conference for Irish Studies, 1999.

Jordan, Eamonn. Theatre Stuff: Critical Essays on Contemporary Irish Theatre. Dublin: Carysfort Press, 2000.

Kamm, Jurgen, ed. Twentieth-Century Theatre and Drama in English: Festschrift for Heinz Kosok on the Occasion of His Sixty-Fifth Birthday. Trier: Wissenschaftlicher Verlag, 1999.

Watt, Stephen, Eileen Morgan, and Shakir Mustafa, eds. A Century of Irish Drama: Widening the Stage. Bloomington: Indiana UP, 2000.

REFERENCE WORKS FOR SPECIFIC AUDIENCES:

Deegan, Loughlin, ed. The Irish Theatre Handbook. Dublin: The Theatre Shop, 1998.

--, ed. The Irish Theatre Handbook, 2nd ed. Dublin: The Theatre Shop,

Shrank, Bernice, and William B. Demastes, eds. Irish Playwrights, 1880-1995: A Research and Production History. Westport: Greenwood Press, 1997.

Sternlicht, Sanford V. A Reader's Guide to Modern Irish Drama. Syracuse: Syracuse UP, 1998.

ANTHOLOGIES OF CONTEMPORARY PLAYS:

Bourke, Siobhan, ed. Rough Magic: First Plays. Dublin: New Island Books, 1999.

Culleton, Jim, ed. Fishamble/Pigsback Plays. Dublin: New Island Books, 2002.

Fairleigh John, ed. Far from the Land: Contemporary Irish Plays. London: Methuen, 1998.

Friel, Judith, and Sanford Sternlicht, eds. New Plays from the Abbey Theatre, Vol. 2 (1996-98). Syracuse: Syracuse UP, 2001.

Greatest Hits: Four One-Act Plays. Dublin: New Island Books, 1997.

Leeney, Cathy, ed. Seen and Heard: Six New Plays by Irish Women. Dublin: Carysfort Press, 2001.

McGuinness, Frank, ed. The Dazzling Dark. London: Faber & Faber, 1997.

The title of Dermot Bolger's critical anthology Druids, Dudes, and Beauty Queens: The Changing Face of Irish Theatre proclaims how far Irish theater has traveled from the foundational texts of early Abbey Theatre directors W.B. Yeats, Lady Gregory, and John Millington Synge. Playwriting and theater production have transformed themselves as rapidly as Ireland itself, so that Irish theater in the 1990s and after seems a culture away from the plays of the 1970s--not to speak of the 1940s or the beginnings of the Irish dramatic movement in the early decades of the century. Buoyed in part by the spectacular growth of the Irish economy, in part by a confident cultural self-definition spanning the north-south border, nearly all areas of Irish theater have expanded. Scholars and theater goers outside Ireland now can readily keep in touch with the changing scene: the sheer volume of books listed above, including new playscripts and analyses of recent productions, approaches landslide proportions.

What relevance do the Irish plays of the past century have to each other, to the formation of the postcolonial Irish state, to the new social and economic realities of the last decade, or to the recasting of Irish identity as part of the European Union? Reading through the four thousand odd pages of new titles provides a range of views concerning the relationship of Ireland's theater practice to political, social, and economic contexts. The thirty titles listed above offer a rich archive of information, ambitious analyses of past and present theaters, and insights concerning trends in Irish drama.

This essay serves only as an introduction to resources published since 1996 on Irish theater. Such works are springing up as a result of vivid contemporary theater in Ireland and from the international vogue of Irish culture in the late 1990s, aided by strategic government funding (by the Republic and Northern Ireland) to sustain both. Editing of and scholarship on the work of individual playwrights lies outside the scope of this essay, which instead explores books and collections of essays treating multiple dramatists and theaters; anthologies of plays by three or more playwrights; and new resources for educators, directors, producers, and theater historians.

CRITICAL AND HISTORICAL STUDIES

The new critical studies of Irish drama vary in coverage and methodology, but all consider the interrelation of Irish society and artistic performance. Each work tackles aspects of the big questions about Irish national dramatic tradition, beginning with a query as to whether there is such a thing. Other questions might follow. Can a national drama predate its nation? What has been the role of Irish theater in its relation to the political division of the island? Are Irish playwriting and theater practices still shaped by residual values from a colonial or transitional Irish culture? What is the relation of Ireland's theater--subsidized and not (yet) subsidized--to the Republic's official policy of bilingualism? What future role do authors project for Irish dramaturgy in mediating change in an increasingly transnational and European Ireland?

Three scholars attempting studies over time--Christopher Morash, Nicholas Grene, and Christopher Murray--begin their stories of Irish theater in different centuries. When does a distinctly Irish theater begin? (3) Christopher Morash commences his History of Irish Theatre, 1601-2000 with a 1601 production of the English play Gorboduc in the Great Hall of Dublin Castle, the first secular stage production on the island. For Morash, who focuses on the audience, the first play produced in Ireland marks the beginning of Irish dramatic tradition--even if the play was written by an English author and was presented in English, a language that the majority of the Irish population in 1601 could not have comprehended. In The Politics of Irish Drama: Plays in Context from Boucicault to Friel, on the other hand, Nicholas Grene regards the 1860 New York staging of Dion Boucicault's The Colleen Bawn as inaugurating a "real Ireland on stage" (5). Grene views the national drama as a canon of texts "self-consciously concerned with the representation of Ireland as its main subject" (1); he finds such a preoccupation evident decades before the founding of the national theater, a founding typically attributed to early-twentieth-century cultural nationalists. Examining stage imagery across productions and decades, Grene identifies recurring leitmotifs--such as that of the "strangers in the house"--which collectively construct the "Irishness" of the texts he considers. In subtle readings of early-twentieth-century texts and his probing chapter on Tom Murphy's "anti-pastoralism," Grene emphasizes that Irish drama is "created as much to be viewed from outside as inside Ireland" (3). He suggests that it is a dramaturgical tradition of distancing and explication, even when performed for Irish audiences.

Christopher Murray regards the nation's drama and a "national consciousness" as inextricably bound together; he locates the beginning of the genre in the creative stirrings of the 1890s that led to the founding of a National Theatre Society, followed by the founding of a nation. In Twentieth-Century Irish Drama: Mirror up to Nation, Murray explores a "broadly defined aesthetic of engagement" (6) that he views as central to the development of modern Irish theater. Rather than writing a comprehensive history, he structures his study around dramas illustrating the proposition, adapted from John Hutchinson, that cultural nationalism mutates over time into "an evolutionary vision of the community." (4) Asserting that drama "helps society find its bearings; it both ritualizes and interrogates national identity" (9), Murray discusses the often-ignored scripts of the 1930s, 1940s, and 1950S as reflecting and critiquing de Valera's pastoral ideal of Irish community. He gives those rarely revived plays a secure place in the still-evolving national drama.

Other studies measure more finite areas. Two volumes use the Abbey Theatre as the microcosm through which to explore the relationship between Irish theater and a larger national life. In his elegantly written The Abbey Theatre, 1899-1999: Form and Pressure, poet and novelist Robert Welch, like Murray in Twentieth Century Irisb Drama, portrays Irish theater as a "National Dream-Life." Welch describes the Abbey as the primary "arena in which the latent forces, energies, and pressures of modern Irish consciousness manifest themselves" in imaginative form (245). Mary Trotter examines the early Abbey as one of many contemporaneous theater groups in the years preceding 1916. In Ireland's National Theaters: Political Performance and the Origins of the Irish Dramatic Movement, Trotter traces the ways in which Ireland's dramatic aesthetic and political identity were affected by nationalist representations in amateur performance. She allocates a chapter each to analyses of the Irish Literary Theatre; the Queen's Royal Theatre; Inghinidhe na hEireann; the Abbey; and the theaters (literal and metaphoric) of Patrick Pearse, educator, play-wright, and revolutionary. Defining stage performance as one among many kinds of public performance in pre-Rising Dublin, Trotter ends with what she regards as a convergence of theatrical performance and historical event in the 1916 Easter Rising. Trotter's approach is fresh and persuasive in its argument that the nation and the national drama were not inevitable formations and might have evolved quite differently. Throughout, she cites the constant and widespread activity of performance work by the Gaelic League and suggests that the Gaelic League performance work "merits its own book" (xx); unfortunately, Trotter seems unaware of available scholarship on Irish language theater. (5)

Drawing on an impressive array of archival research, Lionel Pilkington's Theatre and the State in Twentieth-Century Ireland also focuses on the relationship between Irish theater and politics, but in its institutional aspects. He provides abundant and persuasive evidence of nearly a century of accommodation between Irish political administrations and the national theater. Startlingly, Pilkington argues that the Irish Literary Theatre and its direct successors "owe as much, if not more, to the imaginative energies associated with 'constructive' unionism as they do to those energies associated with the struggle for Irish political independence" (2)--an origin that has created a theater in which "ideological conformity to the interests of the state" (223) continues to be a dominant feature. Beginning with the evolution of the Irish Literary Movement in the shadow of Home Rule and ending with the Peacock's 1985 production of McGuinness's Observe the Sons of Ulster Marching Toward the Somme, Pilkington's narrative is sobering but not deterministic. He concludes by drawing on McGuinness's play to illustrate how art in general and performance in particular transcend politics; they are "often in excess of the meanings proffered by the state" (223).

These new analyses, accessible to the non-specialist as well as scholars of theater or literature, include experiments in presentation style. Morash's A History of Irish Theatre alternates chapters of lively theater history with interchapters labeled "A Night at the Theatre." The result is a scholarly account of each period epitomized by a "night out" to a specific production of the era, from Pompey at the Smock Alley in 1663 to Translations at the Derry Guildhall in 1980. Morash's history concludes with an account of recent Irish theater in a freestanding chapter called "Babel, 1972-2000," ranging over topics, including the training of actors and directors, the paradigm of "Troubles" plays, revisionist productions of Synge and O'Casey classics, and the evolution of a new, transnational artistic diaspora. This unconventional presentation accommodates material likely to have been sacrificed in a more traditional format. Morash's case study organization finds a parallel in John Harrington's The Irish Play on the New York Stage, 1874-1966, a volume discussing seven episodes of Irish dramas in New York, from Boucicault's The Shaughraun (1874) through Brian Friel's Philadelphia, Here I Comet (1966). Harrington chooses productions that incited "public disagreement," including the 1905 confrontation between the New York production of Mrs. Warren's Profession and the Society for the Suppression of Vice, the vocal demonstrations greeting The Playboy of the Western World in 1911, and the 1956 debate on artistic innovation and artistic fraud surrounding Waiting for Godot. Transatlantic cultural contrasts and the role of Irish Americans in some of the protests provide illuminating juxtapositions.

Where is Irish theater, performed increasingly beyond Ireland, heading in the new millennium? Theater historians and critics are generally optimistic about the theater's future as a cultural and economic institution. Morash points out that despite Ireland's small size, the country contains more than fifty professionally run theater venues, as well as hundreds of other drama sites, some professionally equipped. If the drama is, as Welch suggests, the dream-life of the nation, then certainly the Republic boasts a higher percentage of citizen involvement in national dream-life than most states. But a key promise of the early national theater has not been kept, that of creating a thriving drama in Ireland's native language; several studies express regret about lost opportunities in supporting Irish language theater. The problem is not strictly one of economics. Retired Abbey Theatre artistic director Tomas Mac Anna's autobiography, Fallaing Aonghusa: Saol Amharclainne, reveals that for a brief period a national drama in both English and Irish existed, with Irish-language scripts directed by the country's finest talent. That Ireland was then poorer underscores the absence and the dilemma of contemporary Irish-language theater. Aside from facing the obvious difficulty of transporting Irish language offerings to stages in New York and London, today's Irish language theater must contend with the film industry and the globalization of theater professionals, both providing incentives for work in English.

Other previously impoverished areas of Irish theater now thrive. One thinks of the newly professional design and mise en scene aspects that have begun to challenge the traditional privileging of the playwright in Ireland's national theater--a worthwhile development, but one likely to reinforce the transnational identification of theater artists. Robert Welch sees some promise for a future drama in the country's renewed interest in language far from Dublin--in a new enthusiasm for the poetic power of a distinctly Irish English speech that travels well. He describes the success of regional variants such as Marina Carr's midlands dialect or Vincent Woods's Leitrim accents, hoping that they foreshadow a rebirth of the Irish language in the nation's theater. "It may be that the next phase ... will be an exciting drama in Irish; not the parousia, the waiting for the Gaelic redeemer, of Blythe, but the insouciant fire and confidence of an Alan Titley or a Ni Dhomhnaill, fully operative on the stage" (249-50). (6)

Fifty or a hundred years from now Irish drama may assume forms we cannot yet imagine, especially given the rapidity of artistic response to recent social change. If Ireland in the European Union experiences a history of cooperation and peace, will Irish drama maintain twentieth-century features such as the disjunction often evident on stage between lyrical language and distressing social milieu? In Tragedy and Irish Literature: Synge, O'Casey, Beckett, Ronan McDonald develops a thoughtful discussion of tragedy as a communal sense of loss and suggests that transforming repeated loss into the sacrificial ritual of myth renders it meaningful (29). Irish dramatic writing of the past century has been associated with mythic impulses; past Irish theater has been associated with opposing traditions of naturalistic acting. The tension between the two is often palpable and has become a hallmark of Irish plans in performance. But a new past, now in the making, could set the stage for a very different Irish theater.

ILLUSTRATED THEATER HISTORIES

Two new theater histories--conceived as works of love rather than formal academic scholarship--provide valuable archival resources, including photographs. Michael J. O'Neill's The Abbey at the Queen's: The Interregnum Years, 1951-1966 is a guide to an imperfectly understood period when the National Theatre, homeless because a fire had destroyed its Abbey Street structure, made do with a rented stage at Dublin's Queen's Theatre. O'Neill examines how the much larger facility of the Queen's Theatre affected play selection, acting style, and audience policy as the National Theatre Company struggled with performance space very different from its own. O'Neill's book provides a wealth of historical information and photographic material: outlines, opening dates, plot summaries, full cast lists, lists of actors, producers, and scene designers, as well as biographical sketches. Philip Ryan's lavishly illustrated The Lost Theatres of Dublin, as much an act of piety as a history, was written by an Irish actor, whose son describes the work as his father's homage to the theater worlds of Dublin. Ryan's book includes a chapter on each of Dublin's vanished theater buildings, accounts of personages instrumental in each theater's history, photos and some playbills, as well as a bibliography of biographies of actors famous for their work in these theaters.

ANTHOLOGIES OF CRITICISM AND THEATER HISTORY, REFERENCE WORKS

Three anthologies of commentary on Irish theater have appeared under Arts Council/An Chomhairle Ealaion auspices: Druids, Dudes, and Beauty Queens: The Changing Face of Irish Theatre, edited by Dermot Bolger; Theatre Stuff Critical Essays on Contemporary Irish Theatre, edited by Eamonn Jordan; and Theatre Talk: Voices of Irish Theatre Practitioners, edited by Lilian Chambers, Ger Fitzgibbon, and Eamonn Jordan. Like The State of Play: Irish Theatre in the `Nineties, (7) an earlier collection, all three volumes include essays with methodologies that examine the theater in multiple contexts and attend seriously to the production aspect of recent scripts. Eamonn Jordan provides a lengthy introduction to Theatre Stuff's twenty-eight substantial essays, which draw on disciplines from performance studies, queer theory, and cultural studies to expand the analysis of individual plays, recurring dramatic themes, and the histories of particular theater companies. With Lilian Chambers and Ger Fitzgibbon, Jordan also co-edited the third Arts Council title mentioned above: Theatre Talk, the first compilation of "conversations" with Irish theater professionals (playwrights, directors, and designers, as well as critic Fintan O'Toole) on their work in and vision for contemporary Irish theater.

Interest in Irish playwriting and performance has also generated the publication of anthologies of critical and background materials outside Ireland. A recent German collection, a festschrift in honor of Heinz Kosok, is deceptively titled Twentieth-Century Drama and Theatre in English, but discussions of Irish theater dominate, overflowing the Irish section into adjacent ones on English (George Farquhar, Martin McDonagh, et al.) and postcolonial drama and theater. Politics and Performance in Contemporary Northern Ireland, edited by John P. Harrington and Elizabeth J. Mitchell, approaches theater as one of many performance media through which Northern Ireland's citizens acquire impressions of their milieu. Contributors include scholars in the humanities and social sciences, a community activist, and a fiction writer--all applying insights from cultural studies to the interactions between media and audiences in the North. A Century of Irish Drama: Widening the Stage, edited by Stephen Watt, Eileen Morgan, and Shakir Mustafa, similarly attempts to broaden categories. Although it publishes the selected proceedings of an Indiana University conference, "Nationalism and a National Theatre: 100 Years of Irish Drama," the volume ranges more widely than that title would suggest. It includes revisionist readings of Synge and O'Casey, but the majority of its essays engage with recent, female, or undervalued playwrights and texts. In the introduction, Eileen Morgan explains that the collection aims to "recuperate a heterogeneous early theatre (rather than a predominantly nationalist one) and to acknowledge alternative theatre companies and traditions" (xii). Although analyzing more formal dramas, the authors of these essays intelligently apply new methodologies to connect scripts to their social contexts and sources. Lauren Onkey, for example, describes the Passion Machine Theatre Company's contemporary urban storytelling in Dublin, and Marilyn Richtarik studies Stewart Parker's history plays for the stage as a development of the playwright's earlier radio dramas. (8)

A third American collection combines the categories of reference work and essay anthology, publishing essays that provide background on the work of selected playwrights. Bernice Shrank and William B. Demastes edited Irish Playwrights, 1880-1995: A Research and Production History as a resource for North American directors, dramaturgs, and scholars wishing to examine a script's production history, perhaps with the goal of mounting new productions. The volume provides each playwright with a production chronology and offers short essays with biographical, thematic, and background information on the plays. Individual essays vary in style and comprehensiveness, but Irish Playwrights, 1880-1995: A Research and Production History will be a useful starting point for a director or theater historian exploring a pre-1995 Irish script. Had the volume been published in a paperback rather than hardcover edition, it might have rendered unnecessary Sanford Sternlicht's elementary A Reader's Guide to Modern Irish Drama, a skimpy overview aimed at students and general readers of Irish drama. Both groups might look for something weightier; this survey of recent publications evidences a range of choices.

ANTHOLOGIES OF PLAYS

Anthologies of new plays have proliferated in recent years, and those listed above that were published in Ireland received funding from Ireland's Arts Council/An Chomhairle Ealaion. Theater groups and small publishers, especially New Island Press and Carysfort Press, worked to make playscripts available as paperback collections: Fishamble/Pigsback Plays, Rough Magic: First Plays, Greatest Hits: Four One-Act Plays, and Seen and Heard: Six New Plays by Irish Women. In the United States, Syracuse University Press released two volumes of New Plays from the Abbey Theatre and plans to publish a third volume in mid-2003. Readers outside the country can now track the publication of new plays or other new books through the weekly newsletter ReadIreland. (9)

The infrastructure for making Irish plays known and available will take a quantum leap in 2003, when Dublin's Theatre Shop completes its Irish Playography Project. The organizational aspect of Irish theater has been improved by the work of Siobhan Bourke, executive producer at Rough Magic Theatre Company, and Loughlin Keegan at the Theatre Shop, an organization founded to "promote Irish theatre in an international context ... to develop networks and enhance touring opportunities for Irish theatre and dance companies North and South of the border." (10) In 1998 the Theatre Shop published the Irish Theatre Handbook, a compilation of contact information for theater groups, buildings and other performance spaces, sources of potential grants, and chronological lists of new dramatic works premiered by each Irish company. By the next edition in 2001, the directory had doubled in size, a quantifiable index of the country's increased theatrical activity. The next step, the Irish Playography Project, will index Irish playscripts as a book and online catalogue of new plays produced or published by professional companies on the island since 1904. The information gathered by Playography--planned eventually to include relevant critical essays on the plays--will serve as a clearinghouse for tracking permissions and production rights. The centralization of data will make Irish dramaturgy even more visible in the English-speaking world and beyond.

(1) An autobiography for the last half-century of Irish theater.

(2) The title was originally announced for publication in December 2001, but it remains unpublished as this essay goes to press.

(3) This is not a rhetorical question, and dates such as the 1899 founding of the Irish Literary Theatre or the 1904 opening of the Abbey facility are frequent choices. But recent work suggests earlier chronologies: two 1991 Syracuse University Press titles (Stephen Watt's Joyce, O'Casey, and the Popular Theatre and Cheryl Herr's anthology For the Land They Loved: Irish Political Dramas, 1890-1925) have argued that Irish national drama began with popular dramas that preceded the turn-of-the-century Irish dramatic renaissance, contributing themes, settings, and plots to the prenational cultural mix.

(4) See John Hutchinson, The Dynamics of Cultural Nationalism: The Gaelic Revival and the Creation of the Irish Nation State (London: Allen and Unwin, 1987), 30, as cited in Murray, 7.

(5) See the early chapters of Padraig O Siadhail's Stair Dhramaiocht na Gaeilge: 1900-1970 (Clo Iar-Chonnachta: Indreabhan, 1993) and Philip O'Leary's The Prose Literature of the Gaelic Revival, 1881-1921: Ideology and Innovation (University Park: Pennsylvania State UP, 1994), esp. ch. 5, "Uneasy Alliance: The Gaelic Revival and the `Irish' Renaissance." Trotter references neither title.

(6) Ernest Blythe was an Abbey director during the decades of the pre-Republic Irish Free State; some have argued that his forceful advocacy of the Irish language created a backlash. Alan Titley is a writer of Irish-language fiction and a scholar of twentieth-century Irish literature. Naula Ni Dhomhnaill writes Irish-language poetry and is arguably Ireland's most famous living Irish-language poet.

(7) The State of Play: Irish Theatre in the `Nineties, ed. Eberhard Bort (Trier: Wissenschaftlicher Verlag, 1996).

(8) For a fuller discussion of the radio play as an Irish cultural genre, see Dermot Rattigan, Theatre of Sound: Radio and the Dramatic Imagination (Dublin: Carysfort Press, 2002).

(9) To receive a free subscription, e-mail ri-subscribe@readireland.ie.

(10) For more information, see www.theatreshop.ie.

JOYCE FLYNN, an independent scholar and playwright who has written widely on drama, is delighted to see so much attention paid to contemporary theater. In 1999 she was the Irish American Cultural Institute's Visiting Fellow at the National University of Ireland-Galway.

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