A personalized development of self-concept for beginning readers

DeMoulin, Donald F

The lead researcher for "I Like Me" seeks to explain the merits of the book as a personalized reader for kindergarten youngsters. He insists that research findings suggest that it fosters parent/child interaction, improves the child's self-concept, delivers an anti-gang and anti-drug message, serves to instill a love for reading, and that it tends to improve reading comprehension and recall.

EDUCATION We have heard a little bit about the "I LIKE ME!" program from the previous individuals. Could you give us a more detailed description?

Dr. DeMoulin:

"I LIKE ME!" is a special program that utilizes a personalized reader to deliver powerful "I" statements as positive inducements for learning and achievement to kindergartners. The goals of this program are to:

*Create functional school/business alliances whereby a strong, unified partnership between a school and a corporate sponsor is nourished over time;

*Foster parent/child interaction;

*Focus on improving the child's self-concept through the use of positive "I" statements;

*Deliver anti-drug and anti-gang messages;

*Instill a love for reading through a personalized approach;

*Improve reading comprehension and recall (memory);

Although the main emphasis of the "I LIKE ME!" program is to strengthen a child's self- concept through literacy and his/her attitude toward learning, a secondary emphasis is to improve reading comprehension and recall, writing skills, and enhance reading enjoyment. Moreover, the program builds positive interactions with the parent and child, the teacher and child, and parents and teachers while simultaneously increasing school/community partnership and involvement-a much needed, yet many times neglected, part of a community's responsibility in education.

One of my favorite quotes is, "As the twig is bent, so the tree in inclined." When a young tree is planted, it needs stakes to ensure that it's growth is straight and true and that is will withstand all the positive and negative elements that Mother Nature offers. It is the same with children. They need stakes to ensure proper growth and development. These stakes include the home, school, and community - all working together so the child can withstand the positive and negative elements that society offers.

The program is also supported by an increasing number of national educational/civic organizations that include:

*The National Association of School Psychologists;

*The National Head Start Association; *Kappa Delta Pi;

*American Association of School Administrators;

*National Association of Elementary School Principals.

*NASA

EDUCATION You mentioned that the program is personalized. Why is this so special?

Dr. DeMoulin:

There have been a significant number of research studies conducted since the late 1970s using personalized materials to motivate children to learn and to enhance achievement. The reasoning behind the use of a personalized approach is that it would make reading more enjoyable and inviting to children because it reflects things that are familiar in a child's personal life and hence, more interesting and meaningful. Having stories that are meaningful enhances a child's motivation to read. When this occurs, children become more receptive to reading stories that they can identify with. and the more they read. the more they have an oppor-- tunity to improve their reading and interpretation skills. As children become actively engaged in the story, they display a heightened interest and an increased desire to improve their literacy skills. In other words, children become focused which is a key ingredient for learning. Moreover, through the use of personalization, children tend to play the part of the character making them heroes in their own lives. With the "I LIKE ME!" approach, the child is the main character throughout the story and finds himself/herself combining new information and knowledge which s/he has learned to gain an active awareness of their development. These positive experiences also enhance creativity in children as they journey, with two of their friends and their teacher, through the different dimensions of their imagination as related to individual story units. Because the "I LIKE ME!" approach incorporates positive-based narratives, children create a more favorable image of themselves -- an image that is reinforced throughout the twelve-week format. Unfortunately, the use of personalized materials has not been seriously accepted or incorporated to date as a supplemental approach in reading because: I) most of the studies utilized student populations ranging from third to ninth grade with no viable research on the impact of personalization on children in the beginning stages of reading and emotional development; and, more importantly, 2) there has not been an economical method of developing, incorporating and replicating a specific reading offering to masses of children, UNTIL NOW with the involvement of the Telephone Pioneers of America.

Now, a comprehensive personalized program can be made available to masses of kindergartners through the intervention of the Telephone Pioneers of America. In fact, their longrange goal is to enroll two to three million kindergartners by the school year 2001-2002.

EDUCATION The book talks about developing a healthy self-concept through literacy. What is self-concept?

Dr. DeMoulin:

Self-concept is defined here as the sum total of all experiences we are exposed to over time and the negative or positive weights we assign to those experiences-it is, in a small sense, a personal composite of ourselves. It consists of two major sub-components: self-efficacy which is our sensitivity toward some task and based on motivation, confidence, and ability to control stress associated with that task; and self-esteem which is a perception of self and the weight that is placed on the perception of significant others. Our early childhood experiences from the home environment, e.g., parents, guardians, extended families, neighborhood encounters, television, etc., form our baseline self-concept level. In other words, from ages two to six, self-concept is being formed, shaped, and defined upward positively, upward negatively, or downward negatively from experiencing different and more intense events. However, as we grow, our self-concept tends to stabilize somewhat, but, if left unattended, can begin to decline to a seriously low level (depression-suicide-anti-moral behavior, etc.), or to high negative levels which coincide with severe anti-social behavior and a rebellious attitude.

EDUCATION Why is developing healthy self-concept important?

Dr. DeMoulin:

During the effective schools research in the mid to late 1970s, surveys of educators, both teachers and administrators, demonstrated that self-- concept development in children was clearly an important component in educating the whole child. In fact, studies since then have shown that the impact of a student's self-concept on achievement is far more powerful than his/her ability and conceivably a much better predictor of success than personal I.Q. scores. Studies further indicated that student self-concept, if left unchecked, appears to decline as students advance in grade level.

EDUCATION What does self-concept have to do with our behavior?

Dr. DeMoulin:

Everything we do begins with a thought. There are approximately 10,OOO thoughts that go through a person's mind each day. If a majority of these thoughts are negative or a person perceive things in a negative fashion (believing them to be negative) the more negative s/he becomes. Thus, a person's self-concept declines and s/he becomes more pessimistic, destructive, violent, or depressed. However, the more negative thoughts are replaced with positive ones, the more positive the outlook and the more a person's self-concept improves. Personal actions, therefore, reflect a more constructive, balanced, and optimistic demeanor. Our behavior, then, tends to reflect our thoughts. There is a major emphasis being placed on proper behavior from today's youth from the 900,000 members of the American Federation of Teachers. They have initiated a nation-wide campaign of the 3-R's - Responsibility, Respect, and Results. This campaign has been titled, "The Bill of Rights and Responsibilities for Learning," which outlines a set of principles for student conduct. In essence, this organization is bringing attention to an increasing behavior problem of today's youth at home and in the school. The "I LIKE ME!" program addresses these concerns early in that critical age where positive or negative experiences drive behavior. In each of the twelve weeks, there is a word that is stressed to promote positive behavior skills and every-day associations such as uniqueness, nutrition, self-control, improvement, learning, character, citizenship, awareness, creativity, responsibility, effort, and acceptance. It is important that children learn, early, that there is an expected level of behavior. Repetition and reinforcement of positive behavior maximizes the possibility that a child will achieve social maturity rather that social rebellion. We also know that children who feel special, act special and children who feel incapable and unsure, act that way. Hence, if children constantly think about happy things, their behavior tends to be more balanced. However, if children constantly think about violence, they are inclined to have violent tendencies. There is an old saying: "Think good and you will act good; think bad and you will act bad." Unfortunately, we, as individuals, often perceive a negative environment because it is the negative events which are given the most attention while positive events are oftentimes disregarded or taken for granted when they occur. It is important to understand that for every negative response directed toward a child, four positive ones are needed to counter its adverse effects. Because of the nature of our society, children are at-risk from constant exposure to hostile perspectives and opinions resulting from escalating negative messages they come in contact with; negativism is what gets attention.

J. Allan Petersen, editor of Better Families, reported that from birth until a child leaves home in his/her late teens, s/he has been exposed to approximately 148,200 negative comments which translates to an alarming 10:1 ratio of negative to positive messages. This devastating ratio demonstrates the immense task we face to suppress the overpowering effects of negativism; we love or hate ourselves depending upon our belief about ourselves. And, this love or hatred dictates our actions. This is the underlying essence of self-concept.

EDUCATION You mentioned violence. How does it fit into this picture?

Dr. DeMoulin:

The school violence issue is not new-it has generated great concern in the U.S. for over twenty years. However, with the recent outbreak of violence in public schools, school psychologists have been hard at work to help identify children at-risk for aggressive and violent behavior; they help set parameters to prevent violence and provide assistance to school personnel and others when violent acts occur. One report by Dr. Ronald D. Stephens of the National School Safety Center cites that since 1992, there have been 211 violence-associated school deaths in the United States. And, that these incidents are just as likely to occur in rural and suburban America as they are in the inner city.

Children and adolescents who have either a low self-concept or, a self-concept that is strong, but fed by negative forces primarily carry out violent acts. Either way, the outcome is not a good one. Recent violent acts by children in public schools have again focused our attention on this most disturbing issue. However, many of these violent acts by adolescents might have been avoided with a robust early intervention program, such as "I Like Me!". A program such as this can help turn the tide for those very young children who display early signs of low or high negative self-concept and prevent them from becoming "at-risk" statistics. Children are the most fragile of our resources because their inner self is so much determined by outside forces that they sometimes have a difficult time coping with the real world at a point in their development where they are most vulnerable. It is my contention that an early intervention strategy with continual positive reinforcement and assessment can make a significant impact on violent tendencies at a later point in their development.

EDUCATION Self-concept means different things to different people. What problems does this bring about?

Dr DeMoulin:

Because self-concept has been misunderstood and misused, there have been some rather significant misconceptions concerning its impact on behavior. These include:

*Self-Concept is gender specific, e.g., girls and women have lower self-concept than boys and men.

The truth is that self-concept is not gender specific. Girls, women, boys, and men are equally susceptible to the positive or negative effects of self-concept.

*Social economic status and self-concept are positively correlated (lower social economic status equates to lower self-concept while higher social economic status equates to higher self-concept -- translation, only the poor suffer from low self-concept). This myth is one that is difficult to discharge because people have thought so long that poor people cannot possibly have a good self-image. This could not be farther from the truth. In fact, many well-to-do families have children with lower that desired self-concept primarily due to the inattention given to the children. Parents are usually so caught up in the day-to-day effort for the good life that they often times neglect to give equal time to their children.

*Age and self-concept are inversely correlated (as age increases, self-concept declines while as age declines, self-concept increases-translation, children should not have a problem with poor self-- concept while adults should havelower self-concept). Unfortunately, this myth has led many parents, teachers, and community members to down play the significance of self-concept in a child's critical developmental years. Research reports that self-concept begins to form and development between the ages of two and six. It is within this time frame that a child obtains a great understanding of his/her significance, capacity, and uniqueness as an individual. They are also able to present a self- description of their inner emotions and beliefs. By the time children reach adulthood, self-concept, if not addressed early, will be either positive or negative, in which case it is more difficult to alter.

*Minorities have lower self-concept than non-minorities. Although minority children may indeed face different, challenging and conflicting social messages, values, and expectations depending on their environmental community, on the whole, however, minorities who have not lost their ethnic identity and who have a sense of belonging (as with all individuals) demonstrate little difference in self-concept gain or loss when compared with non-minority children or adults.

*Individuals who have high self-concept are successful. This belief unfortunately arises from a total misconception of the difference between a high self-concept and a healthy self-concept. Individuals, especially children may have high self-concept, but it depends on which end of the spectrum, home and school, or gangs, that determines whether their self-concept will be positively or negatively developed. For example, when children experience rejection from home and/or school, they will seek other methods of acceptance. Gangs will open their arms to these children and give them what they feel is acceptance. Unfortunately, this false sense of security often results in an anti disposition and opposing social views. Only where self-concept is fed by positive means can a child develop a high, healthy self-concept.

*Individuals who have higher I.Q. scores also have a higher self-concept. There are many people who are extremely intelligent, but have low self-concept for a variety of reasons. Children who are "labeled" as gifted often times suffer from lower self-concept due to a lack of attention at home and/or from their peers. When a child, or an adult, suffers from low self-concept, his/her level of intelligence, in most cases, is of little consequence until his/her self-concept level improves significantly.

*People who have high self-concept are respected by mainstream society. Again, it depends on which end of the spectrum one is operating from. Respect is an attribute that cannot be forced upon anyone; it must be earned. Individuals with high negative selfconcept may be respected by their group or gang, but fall well short of earning respect within society as a whole. Even when an individual exhibits a high, healthy self-concept, it is his/her actions that dictate others' attitude toward him/her.

*Self-concept begins to form and develop early and remains stable throughout one's life. While it is true that self-concept begins to form and develop early and is fairly stable, it is not impregnable, but vulnerable to constant shifts in one's self-efficacy and self-esteem. These elements change more rapidly, either positively or negatively, which gradually brings about a corresponding change in self-concept.

EDUCATION There appears to be some confusion between self-concept and self esteem. Is there a difference?

Dr. DeMoulin:

Yes. Down through the decades, there has been a growing misconception concerning self-concept and self-esteem. Many so-called "self-esteem" movements have been detrimental to children during their growth cycle. When self-esteem programs deal with "making a child feel good" regardless of his/her achievement level, they tend to promote a false sense of accomplishment. This is because a child may be told that s/he is great regardless of what s/he does. In other words, self has been separated from the task.

Self-concept includes both the task (self-efficacy) and self (self-esteem) components-they are mutually unexclusive events. To properly develop a healthy self-concept, both task and self must be incorporated. For example, if a goal for a child is to count to ten and s/he makes it to four, under the banner of self-esteem, s/he would be given great praise for his/her accomplishment. However, this would give a child a false sense of achievement and his/her self-esteem would be elevated under false pretenses that may have serious consequences at a later time. Under the self-concept banner, the same child would be given praise for his/her success, but would also be told that the goal of counting to ten had not been reached and hence would be encouraged to complete the task at hand. In this scenario, the child would understand that although s/he has made significant progress, there is still work to be done to reach the stated goal.

To this end, self-concept combines self and task during progression to minimize unlimited praise and compliments for mediocre performance. It does promote a genuine sense of achievement and competence.

EDUCATION How does self-concept relate to personal health in children?

Dr. DeMoulin:

It is becoming more evident that we have a generation of children at risk because of a lack of a proper fitness and nutritional scheme. The problem, however, is not indigenous to older children, but begins much earlier in a child's life. I look at health as total fitness. In this sense, for children, it also pertains to their learning and education to be productive members of society. As the literature reveals, many people are classified as "well" or "mentally fit", but do not contribute to society. A shift from feeling of essential to non-essential can be destructive to children. Research highly supports the notion that a healthy mind is necessary for a healthy body, of which the reverse is true. Children with lower self-concept tend to have higher health problems. This is because, I believe, that low self-concept is associated with a lower opinion of self, which, in turn, is associated with depression, drug usage, low satisfaction with self and with life, rejection, confusion, apathy, self-indulgence, hostility, rebellion, etc.

Using a personalized approach strengthens a child's positive imagery and serves as the catalyst in regulating his/her positive emotional state. In other words, as a child reads about the positive nature of the character (himself/herself), s/he begins, as I mentioned before, to take on those positive characteristics and, in fact, begins to apply them to life.

EDUCATION How is reading linked to self-concept?

Dr. DeMoulin:

We do know that there is a strong relationship between self-concept and reading. Whether poor reading skills cause low self-concept or whether low self-concept causes poor reading skills is still unrefined. However, it has been my experience that when one is low or high, the other usually follows the same path. Research does support the notion that the farther removed a child is in grade-level reading, the more difficult it is to correct and the more difficult it is to re-establish positive attitudes toward learning; hence a child's fragile self-concept tends to weaken. Basically, children on average begin their schooling with a good approach toward school (self-efficacy) and a good opinion about themselves (self-esteem). However, if these two elements of self-concept are not positively reinforced, they tend to deteriorate, especially when a child begins to experience reading difficulties. When this occurs, s/he becomes frustrated toward learning. This frustration tends to destroy any enjoyment for school a child may experience, leading to a negative attitude toward teachers, peers, and his/her school.

EDUCATION Do we have a reading crisis in America?

Dr. DeMoulin:

According to a recent U.S. News and World Report study, three out of four children entering fourth grade cannot meet expected reading standards. Furthermore, a recent survey from the Adult Literacy Organization reported that 21 percent of Americans are functionally illiterate and a 1998 report by the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) revealed that 40 percent of the population in the United States (approximately 104 million people) have reading problems severe enough to hinder enjoyment of reading and two in five children have some level of difficulty in phonemic awareness. Finally, in a recent government report, 40 percent of America's fourth graders failed to attain the basic level of reading on the National Assessment of Educational Progress. This launched a presidential response to mobilize public and privates resources to assist the nation's reading problem. So, reports such as these from different sources would indicate that there is a definite sense of urgency and that the Telephone Pioneer organization is poised to make tremendous strides in this effort.

EDUCATION You spoke about three in four children not being able to meet reading standards entering fourth grade. Is there a point where a child's inability to read at grade level becomes more difficult address?

Dr DeMoulin:

Yes. According to the NICHD study, 74 percent of children identified with reading difficulties in third grade do not improve significantly in ninth grade. As a result, they are more likely to drop out of school and engage in delinquent behaviors. The best prevention of reading difficulties, therefore, is early intervention strategies at the preschool/kindergarten level. Fourth grade also has another significance. As you recall in my previous response to a question, self-concept can begin to decline as early as grade two. So, it seems that, for a child to have the best opportunity to succeed, s/he needs to enter fourth grade reading at that level with a healthy self-concept in tact.

EDUCATION How does the "I LIKE ME!" program address both self-concept and reading?

Dr. DeMoulin:

The "I LIKE ME!" program uses a comprehensive, twelve-week approach that involves the use of powerful "I" statements and a success-oriented lesson structure. Each child is featured at least once per week as a class star and that a unit lesson is repeated four or five times each day. This repetition reinforces the positive messages in meeting the unit's purpose. For twelve weeks (one-third of the school year), children are exposed to a wide- range of positive lessons in which they are the main focus of attention. Each lesson emphasizes a word-of-the-week that becomes the focal point of a unit's goal. The program also encourages parent participation. Each evening there is at least one parent involvement activity and each Wednesday, there are activities where parents are invited to the school to participate. The goal here is, "Invite them often and eventually they may come."

The "I LIKE ME!" program addresses, in its most basic sense: self-concept through the intervention of five significant developmental qualities-character, sincerity, effort, etiquette, and self- control; self-esteem by reinforcing acceptance, love, caring, and positive emotional development; self- efficacy by emphasizing recognition, team-work, and achievement in a success-oriented format and; reading by demonstrating, through a personalized approach, that reading can be fun, by utilizing creativity and imagination in each unit, and by improving comprehension and recall skills through repetition of activities. Finally, the "I LIKE ME!" program brings together the home, school, and community in a unified effort to address self-concept and reading issues in a child's critical window of development. The entire process from beginning to end involves an interdependent effort - all relying on each other and one that demonstrates to each child a sense of caring.

EDUCATION What impact has the "I LIKE ME!" program had on self-concept and reading issues?

Dr. DeMoulin:

Results of empirical testing of 1,000 participants during the twelve-weeks of program utilization conclude that the "I LIKE ME!" program significantly improved self-concept (with an average overall gain of seven percent), self-esteem (with an average overall gain of 8.0 percent), and self-efficacy (with an average overall gain of 6.1 percent). Teachers also reported up to a 40 percent decline in classroom management difficulties and a significant improvement in parental involvement and home/school relationships. In separate control/experimental studies, data revealed that:

*students who participated in the twelve-week program on a continual basis demonstrated an average gain in self-concept of 28.7 percent;

*students who received the personalized book and periodic instruction demonstrated an average gain in self-concept of 3.9 percent;

*students who received the personalized book, but received no instruction demonstrated an average gain in self-concept of 3.6 percent; and

*students who did not receive the personalized book demonstrated an average gain in self-concept of 3.1 percent.

These self-concept gains indicate to me that the "I LIKE ME!" program generates positive self-concept development and growth. Although the other groups demonstrated modest average gains, it indicates normal self-concept development and growth patterns apart from any program. In other words, the average gains of the other three groups would have naturally occurred. What is exciting is the obvious gap in average gains when kindergartners participated in the twelve-week program.

Data also showed that:

*Reading comprehension and recall (memory) for the group using the personalized "I LIKE ME!" reader improved significantly (on average of approximately 48 percent) when compared to the group which used a non-personalized reader;

*Gender, race, and socio-economic status were not significant factors;

*Significant educational gains in the magnitude of improvement [based on the Screening Test of Educational Prerequisite Skills (STEPS) published by Western Psychological Services] in the following areas: 1) Intellectual Skills; 2) Cognitive Skills; and 3) Attitude

*From the Developing Skills Checklist published by McGraw-Hill early childhood system, significant gains were observed in the following areas:

*Language *Memory

*Visual *Auditory

*Total Pre-reading *Print concepts

*Preliminary analysis of data concerning the Gesell Child Developmental Age Scale (which compares a child's developmental aged with his/her chronological age) indicates a small, but recognizable movement. This suggests that a child's developmental age has moved slightly closer to his/her chronological age.

Although the "I LIKE ME!" program can be utilized in many formats, the best results were observed within the twelve-week, continuous format utilizing the guidelines within the Teacher's Guide (point at which gains in self-concept were statistically relevant). It is during this twelve-week format where the four R's, Recognition, Repetition, Reinforcement, and Reward, are stressed. Recognition of terms and behaviors-Repetition of terms and positive behavior mannerisms Reinforcement of achievement and proper code of conduct and encouragement to challenge self- -Reward for little successes along the way, but realizing that success is associated with achievement.

EDUCATION Secretary Riley informed us in his address about the importance of parents. How critical is parental involvement in a child's education?

Dr. DeMoulin:

The literature is quite clear on this. The most accurate predictor for student achievement is the extent to which parent(s) encourages learning and the extent to which they are actively engaged in their child's leaming-it is the time that parents spend with their child. You see, parents owe their children a home environment where there is unconditional love, structured discipline, role modeling, mutual respect, foundation for the future, and, most importantly, time. Time is the commodity that children gauge their worth. When parents say they do not have adequate time for their children, their children interpret this to mean that their parents do not value them. As someone once said, "Nothing you do for your children is ever wasted." Parents need to find time to read aloud with their child every day. This is one way parental involvement can make a significant impact on their child's learning process.

EDUCATION We have heard much about the America Reads Challenge. What is this initiative?

Dr. DeMoulin:

According to this initiative, every American needs to identify the role s/he plays to maximize a child's opportunity to read at grade level by the end of third grade. Their recommendation is that parents, educators, and private-sector personnel work together to meet this challenge. Showing children that someone cares is a tremendous first step in addressing this problem. This report further indicates that tutoring increases reading achievement. According to a recent report from the International Reading Association, the best nine year old readers in 32 countries were those who were read too most often by parents and teachers. The "I LIKE ME!" program provides the impetus to create that reading relationship and produce positive results.

EDUCATION What is the role of the Telephone Pioneers of America and the "I LIKE ME!" program in the America Reads Challenge?

Dr. DeMoulin:

The Telephone Pioneers of America, with their vast network of volunteers, become the hands and feet of the "I LIKE ME!" program. With a possibility of millions of children entering kindergarten with less than desired self-concept and poor reading skills, the ability to reach vast numbers around the country becomes a vital link in addressing these issues. One of the components of the America Reads Challenge is to expand and initiate local efforts. The Telephone Pioneers are not only poised to meet this challenge, but have taken the lead through their involvement with the "I LIKE ME!" "program and establishing many functional partnerships with other organizations to offset the cost of the materials. By forming these partnerships, TPA chapters, clubs, and councils can reach many more children nationally and internationally. The Telephone Pioneers have made this program a reality to thousands of children across the United States and Canada. Approximately 35,000 kindergartners were enrolled during the 1996-1997 school year; approximately 68,000 during 1997-1998; and, over 170,000 kindergartners were enrolled in 1998-1999. The program has doubled its enrollment for the past three years, but the job is only beginning. It is through the efforts of this organization that this meaningful and worthwhile program can be made available to a large number of children-making a significant impact on each and every child they come in contact with. It is an impact that could make a critical difference in whether a child contributes positively or a negatively to society.

CONTRIBUTING AUTHORS TO "I LIKE ME!"

Many of the following contributing authors are members of the Kindergartners Count, "I LIKE ME!" advisory board. Each of them has made a long-term commitment to helping kids get a good start to life. They have agreed to use parts of their address from the International Convention of the Telephone Pioneers of America held in October, 1998 at San Antonio, Texas. At this event, each of the 1,500 participants were provided transportation via school busses to each of the elementary schools in San Antonio where approximately 5,000 kindergartners were provided with their own personalized "I LIKE ME!" reader. The participants then read to each of the kindergartners during a massive book distribution.

The following addresses were put together for this feature.

*Demonstrate to the child that s/he can be an important, successful young citizen by the development of a healthy self-concept through literacy.

DONALD F. DEMOULIN, ED.D., ABPS

Head Researcher for "I LIKE ME"

University of Tennessee at Martin

Martin, Tennessee 38238

Copyright Project Innovation Fall 1999
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