Potgietersrus and Vryburg in South Africa: What went wrong? Implications for educational managers

van der Linde, CH

E PLURIBUS UNUM (UNITY FROM DIVERSITY Change is taking place at South African schools. Political change influences all facets of society, including education. In some cases education has become a pawn in politics, as was the case in the ideological disputes that took place at certain schools in South Africa. In this article the focus is on the chain of events that took place at two of these schools as well as a brief discussion on those aspects that went wrong. Lastly possible solutions for these problematic conflict situations in multicultural schools are given.

Introduction

"Conflict-free families, organisations or nations do not exist" (Van de Wert, 1997:3).

From the above-mentioned quotation it can be deduced that conflict is a universal concept in for instance organisations like schools. With his inauguration in May 1994 president Mandela pleaded for the reconciliation of many cultures and one united nation. However, since that time there were episodes of conflict in the new multicultural schools of the rainbow nation.

Change is taking place in South Africa. Political.change influences all facets of society, including education. In some cases, education has even become a pawn in politics, as was the case in the ideological disputes that took place at Potgietersrus Primary School and Vryburg High School. Since the author found it useful to study the events that took place at these schools and even use it as international examples, she have used it for case studies in this article provide valuable second-hand experience for multicultural schools around the globe. First the events at Potgietersrus Primary in 1996 and then the Vryburg incident in 1998-1999 will be discussed.In this article a discussion of what went wrong at these two schools as well as possible solutions will take place. In the case studies the relevance of effective educational management in the new multicultural schools in South Africa will become clear.

a) Potgietersrus Primary School

In January 1996, Northern Province's Minister of Forestry and Water Affairs, Mister Matukane, wanted to have his children enrolled at this school. This was the first time that the school had been approached by black parents. The principal tried to avoid confrontation because Mister Matukane was a minister. A dispute broke out at the school and, on demand from the white parents, the black pupils were refused admission. The case ended up in the Supreme Court.

Judge Spoelstra, who handled the case, ordered the school to enrol the black children. A school may not unfairly refuse to admit any child on the basis of race, ethnic or social origin, colour or language. Whether or not their enrolment is accepted as valid, they must be protected. The judge's decision was not welcomed by all the parties because a death threat was left on an answering machine at his home.

The school lodged an appeal against the judge's finding and submitted that Afrikaans speakers constitute a minority group, which has a human right to develop its cultural life, language and religion. The school claimed that it had the right to protect the personal character and ethos and to maintain cultural differences and therefore had the right to refuse the black parents' applications.

The school based its case on the claim that Potgietersrus Primary had an Eurocentric culture and that the culture of the black parents and their children was Afrocentric. The school claimed that there is a vast difference between Afrocentric and Eurocentric cultures and that, therefore, the white parents were "entitled" to preserve and protect the dominant culture and ethos of the school.

A letter written in reaction to this, which appeared in Beeld, a Gauteng newspaper, stated that the governing body's views on the enrolment of black pupils were at least partially based on race. This person believed that this was confirmed in their free admission that the school had a "Eurocentric" character and that it would have introduced an unacceptable "Afrocentric" ethos if black students were admitted. He claimed that "Eurocentric" and "Afrocentric" were weak euphemisms for white and black.

Hartley (1996:4) and Beeld-Kommentaar (1996:8) support this view. Beeld Kommentaar reads as follows: "Many observers will simply see it as racism in disguise, i.e. a white school versus a black school. What would Potgietersrus Primary do if a few hundred black pupils in the town said that they preferred a Eurocentric schooling? Would they be admitted unconditionally? (Own translation)" Beeld-Kommentaar also highlighted the following problem: "The school system in South Africa cannot be reduced to this kind of compartmentalisation. In any case, who determines what is Eurocentric or what is Afrocentric? Because any African school must necessarily incorporate strong elements of the learning process that developed over thousands of years in the European culture. At the same time, can a school be in Africa and yet isolate itself from the distinctiveness of the African continent ... Pupils must be equipped for the challenges of Africa and a more expansive world. This requires the best of both worlds ... rather than new islands" (own translation).

The governing body requested that the school's hostel be used for Afrikaans speakers. The existing school building could then be used by English-speaking pupils as a separate school. The school would be open to all races as long as Afrikaans was the teaching medium and the Afrikaner culture remained central to the education and teaching.

On the first day that black pupils were admitted to the school, the parents' committee began an unofficial boycott. In protest, most white parents kept their children at home on account of the "abnormal circumstances". Right-wing white parents intimidated black parents who came to enrol their children by staring at them and passing comments. In response to the presence of armed AWB members at the school gates, one black parent warned that he too was armed.

February 24 was an ordinary school day. Black and white pupils worked together in the same classrooms and during break they all played together without friction.

The governing body then launched further appeals that the European culture of the school should be preserved to the national forum. White parents refused to send their children to school until the forum had made its decision and as a result of the "potential for conflict" that existed at the school. According to Tempelhoff (1996a:4) conflict might have got out of hand if the board of control had had unlimited powers.

Tim du Plessis (1996:8) warns: "In South Africa all blacks are aggressors unless proved to the contrary and all Afrikaners are racists unless proved to the contrary (Own translation)."

Mr Ramathlodi, Premier of Northern Province, appealed to President Mandela to try to find an "urgent solution" to the "complicated problem of own schools for Afrikaners as a cultural group". He said that the Government for National Unity (GNU) and the provincial government should try to find a political interpretation for the concept of protection of minority rights.

President Mandela said that Afrikaners' fears concerning education should receive attention at political level. According to him the problem with education in South Africa is that the population groups do not approach educational problems from a national perspective, but rather from their individual ethnic positions.

The final report revealed that Afrikaans speakers who broke away from Potgietersrus had established a private school on a farm.

b) Vryburg High School

In 1998 the Vryburg High School in North West Province also experienced racial conflict. According to Esterhuyse (1998:6) everything that could go wrong with the handling of the brewing racial tension and conflict went wrong. He says that role players themselves made a mess of those matters that did not go wrong because of the dynamics of conflict situations. This happened 18 months after a provincial government strategy was drafted which was "designed to defuse such flare-ups" (Duffy, 1998:7). In a similar racial encounter in 1996 outraged black pupils took former provincial education deputy director general Mayet hostage.

The skirmish in 1998 propelled this school into international spotlight. Polarisation between races were noteworthy and both black as well as white pupils contributed to it. Some of the black pupils who were in the centre of the conflict were 18 years and older. This school conflict also escalated until it touched the whole community. Five black pupils did not pay their school fees and were expulsed. This was the trigger for the conflict.White parents demanded the suspension of five black pupils. The parents could only identify one of the alleged bell-weathers. On 24 February 1998 white parents mauled black pupils with sjamboks and sticks. Police used teargas and vehicles were torched. All these incidents happened in a time span of weeks until the education director IS Molefe ordered the school to close for its Easter holiday and sent in independent investigators.

A task team was appointed. They took less than a week to investigate the matter. Some of the findings revealed that:

* Previous recommendations were not implemented.

* The white school principal, Mr Theo Scholtz, was ignorant about transformation, has no vision or empathy with the needs of black pupils.

* There was no proper leadership. The school principal depended upon external role players like the police. Teachers were apparently excluded from the managerial and decision taking process of the school.

* White parents had more access to the principal. Black pupils have a perception that the principal allowed white parents to control black pupils at the school terrain.

* There were two schools operating from one premise. This included two different timetables and separate teachers for black and white pupils.

* A strong dominating "macho-ethic" prevailed between the pupils.

* The department failed to play a supportive and pro-active role.

* Black pupils were exposed to bullying and victimisation. There was no interaction between pupils, together with extreme racism and prejudice. The only contact between white and black pupils took place during the changing of classes.

* The managerial board was not represented demographically. There are indications that certain members of the managerial board as well as a teacher participated in the accident where the white parents whipped the black pupils.

* White parents indicated that problems originated from the lack of discipline.

* Black pupils were denied computer training, certain sport and hostel amenities and a teacher and prescribed books for English second language.

The task team commended that the principal stays on in his position but with the mandate to transform the school. A black deputy principal should be appointed as soon as possible. All amenities should be accessible to all pupils. The management board should be recomposed in order to make it more representative. Parallel- and "against-racism" teaching should be established. Symbols of transformation such as the new flag and school anthem should be more significant. There should be a code of conduct for all parties.

Esterhuyse (1998:6) says the following about the conflict episode in Vryburg:

* It is a debatable question whether pupils older than 18 and 19 years should be put into schools that do not yet have a culture of tolerance and non-racialism. Cultural and racial gaps are already difficult to handle. When gaps in age are also thrown into the "pot", tension becomes unavoidable.

Parents should stop making their children the victims of the prejudices and hypocrisies of "the fathers". Children should be raised in a better environment concerning racial relationships than their parents. South Africa could be most sensitively harmed when parents, brown, white or black, lengthen their racial prejudices in the future, by means of their children.

De Kock (1990:8) reported that the managerial board of the school had a meeting with Mr Z Tolo, the MEC for Education. The managerial board strongly denied accusations that the black pupils were denied certain privileges that white pupils had. They said that this was a flagrant lie. Mr Tolo said that the problem in Vryburg is not the pupils, but their parents. If you throw a ball between a group of children, they will immediately start playing with it without any questions on colour. Unluckily, he said, it could not be said of their parents. At this stage fourteen white parents are awaiting a trial for tackling black pupils with samboks.

Unfortunately that was not the end of the story. In February 1999, Andrew Babelle, one of the older black learners, stabbed a white learner, Christoff Erasmus on the playground with a pair of scissors next to his carotoid artery. He was found guilty of murder in the regional court of Vryburg. Allegedly he also threatened a teacher with a knife.

Babelle was expelled from the hostel. Furthermore, on May 20, 2000 he and three other young black people appeared in the regional court on charges of public violence, assault and detention of the principal and two previous members of the governing body as hostages.

He was transferred to the High School Reivilo. On March 19, 2000 it was reported in Beeld (2000:9) that he was also in hot water in his new school. In the same paper it was also reported that the High School Vryburg now has a brand-new governing body as well as a new chairman. The election of the board was democratic and the parents were notified in writing long before the election. Letters of authority were sent to each parental home. Nevertheless, the black mayor of Vryburg complained that all the members of the governing body are white and Afrikaans speaking.

On May 20, 2000 it was reported that there was sporadic violence in Vryburg. A group of approximately 50 juveniles put vehicles on fire and threw stones at it because Babelle got three years of imprisonment (Beeld, May 12, 2000). At this stage the situation is tense but under control.

These were unique situations that have never occurred before in South Africa. The researcher realises the need for insight and skill in managing multicultural schools. In 1998 Esterhuyse (1998:6) warns that it was important to keep in mind that racism was still a reality in the inclinations, appearances, humour and ideological positions of many South Africans. However, school managers are in a very good position to curb racism.

The nature and cause of conflict Authors like Greenberg & Bacon 1995: 445), Condiffe 1991: 1), Van Fleet 1991: 402), Vecchio 1991: 402), Rue & Byars Anstey (1999:6) all tried to define conflict. These definitions have the following in common: Conflict is a process in which there is an observable threat when there is a divergence between the values, needs, aims, interests and perceptions of one individual with those of another individual or group and when one individual or group seems to threaten or frustrate, or appears about to threaten or frustrate the aspirations, aims or interests of another. Conflict can arise when there is a dispute or misunderstanding between two or more people or groups. In such a situation one or both parties may become openly antagonistic and may purposefully employ their power to eliminate, neutralise, defeat or change each other in order to protect or further their interests. Conflict can have a positive or negative outcome, depending on how it is managed.

If conflict is not correctly managed in the multicultural school situation could have negative results such as the following:

* tension, threats, physical assault, arbitrary decisions, illness, a defensive attitude, challenging authority, anger, depression or frustration

* negative action could make it possible to maintain an effective climate for learning because antisocial behaviour can stifle positive attitudes to learning

* the classroom climate suffers when communication is poor and pupils misunderstand the intentions, feelings, needs and actions of others (Bey & Turner 1996:27-28)

When there is destructive conflict, the root cause should be identified and dealt with.

Conflict in societies in transition

Conflict is sometimes unavoidable when there is adjustment and drastic change in society. An example of this is the Soweto unrest in 1976 which is regarded by some as a turning point in South African history. Conflict can be important and beneficial in any relationship because of the emotional catharsis it provides.

Most societies accept a level of conflict, especially in times of transition, but when is legitimate to express conflict in an aggressive way? Himes (1980: 18-19) contends:

"Conflicts may be defined as legitimate when they are required, endorsed, or permitted by the universalistic norms of an inclusive social system, for instance that of a society or community ... conflicts that exceeds the limits are imposed by societal consensus ...are defined as nonlegitimate."

Anstey (1999:7), however argues that this is problematic to societies in transition because how does one define acceptable behaviour in such societies? When does a person become a criminal? According to him this is complicated by inter alia shifting norms and questions of justice and morality. Educational managers should therefore have knowledge of the norms and values as well as the different traditions of the pupils in their schools. Negotiation and conflict resolution skills

The process of discussing conflict and trying to come to an agreement about it is the first step in conflict resolution. As a result of the complex nature of conflict and the necessity to deal with it promptly and appropriately, it is essential that conflict is managed proactively.

The components of conflict handling

Van de Vliert (1997:29-38) describes the five-part typology of behavioural components of conflict, namely

- avoiding;

- accommodation;

- compromising;

- problem solving; and fighting.

The. discussion of the aspects hereunder are the viewpoints of Van Wert (1997:29-36) and Palmer (1990:26-31) which both did remarkable research on conflict handling and negotiation.

Avoiding (7 will stay out of it")

According to Van Vliert (1997:32) "avoidance is the prevention or termination of efforts to yield openly, to negotiate constructively, or to win completely". Avoidance is difficult to grasp and give occasion for misconceptions. This style may be appropriate inter alia when differences are so unreconcilable that confrontation will not achieve anything. Accommodation ("I will give in") This happens when one gives in to the opponent's part of view or demand. Frequent use of this style is detrimental for all parties. However, a sensible strategy of accommodation is the involvement of a third party because it may be an opportunity for giving in without losing face.

This is an appropriate style when inter alia

* one is unsure of his/her own ideas and feels that his/her position is not strong;

* the long-term relationship is of more significance than the short range conflict matters;

various equally resolutions are being weighed.

Fighting ("I will get my way")

In this style there are only two possibilities, to win or to lose. Palmer (1990:31) warns that this style may leave lasting wounds that would make further resolution of the conflict unattainable. This style may be appropriate when

* an unpopular, but necessary decision must be made and action must be taken quickly;

* a leader is convinced that his solution is the best and very important for the group or organisation.

Compromising ("I will meet you halfway")

This is the pursuance of a mutually agreeable resolution in which each of the conflicting parties makes a compromise. The intention is to give to each of the parties "some of the winnings as well as some of the losses. It follows the philosophy of give and take, of negotiating and bartering the interests and goals of each party"..."We will agree to x if you agree to y" (Palmer ,1990:29).

According to Palmer (1990:30) this style is appropriate when

* different parties of equal strength are headstrong concerning different goals and solutions; and

* there is something that can be divided or changed.

He says that this style will rarely work for dissolving problems on deeply held convictions, values and traditions.

In the Potgietersrus and Vryburg incidents the strategy of problem solving would be best. The strategy will be briefly discussed hereunder.

Problem solving ("Let's work together for everyone's good")

This is a process of "sequential conglomeration of active and creative components of conflict behaviour" (Van de Vliert, 1997:36), open negotiation, tentative and exploratory problem-solving components, the appreciation of the value of each party and good relationships. It assertive and flexible.

This style is preferred in the majority of conflicts. However it requires more time than other styles but it is worth the extra time and effort. This process can sometimes be very risky and demanding.

Potgietersrus and Vryburg: What Went Wrong?

In the case of Potgietersrus the Afrikaans speaking pupils who broke away from the school went to a private school. The strategy of "accommodation" was used here and these pupils did not have the opportunity to learn how to deal and live with people of another culture. It seems as though the strategy of "fighting" was used in the Vryburg situation and therefore the conflict lasted longer as the Potgietersrus incident. In both these case studies the different parties deeply held convictions, values and traditions but in the case of Potgietersrus the shift in norms and values was not so extreme for the younger children as it was in the case of the secondary school in Vryburg. Therefore pupils of different races played happily during playtime. In the case of Vryburg the conflict erupts in a secondary school where some pupils grew up in a situation with conflict as the only means to achieve their goals. Furthermore, it seems as though the old ways to handle conflict in a school situation was not applicable in both these schools. It is obvious that these pupils and their parents and teachers had not enough knowledge of how to handle conflict constructively and non-violently.

According to Pruitt and Rubin as quoted by Anstey (1999:48) people "take the law in their own hands" when there are no trusted forums or third-party institutions. A skilled mediator or a board of mediators would have been beneficial in negotiating these problem situations.

Guidelines for negotiation

Playfoot, Skelton and Southworth (1989:33) and Matlawe (1988:21), Push (1994:98), Thiederman (1991:221) and Goldstein and Leopold (in Henderson 1994:270) give the following guidelines for negotiation:

* Avoid the use of violence. Use tact and respect during the discussions. Look for points of agreement to foster mutual understanding.

* Maintain a neutral position. Focus discussion on issues rather than people. It is difficult to resolve differences if one party feels discriminated against by the negotiator.

* Maintain control throughout the process and concentrate on the problem at hand. Do not talk too much. Repeatedly summarise and check that you have understood correctly. Try to avoid argument and competition.

Each individual has a unique background. The educational manager should understand as much as possible about that background. Establish whether the problem originated in cultural differences by finding out the following:

- Are the parties from different cultures or subcultures?

- Does the key issue represent an important value in each culture?

- How would each party deal with this issue in his or her own culture?

* If there is too much enmity, the parties should be approached separately when persuading them to act positively and rationally.

* Give each party sufficient time to present their case as fully as possible and without interruption. Nothing should be left out.

* Try to find agreement on what the problem is by asking each party questions and finding out exactly what is upsetting each person. Remember that in most cases the facts are twisted and try to distinguish between facts and assumptions.

* Listen attentively. It is particularly important to listen attentively when diagnosing the causal factors. It also helps the negotiator to find out if the parties are looking at different and separate realities: it will also be good for the different parties' self-respect to know that someone is listening to them.

* Offer reasonable solutions. Solutions that clearly will not work aggravate the problem and belittle the status of the negotiator (in this case the educational manager) in the eyes of the parties.

Understand the underlying dynamics of conflict. Focus on interests rather than on the person's status. Focus on establishing consensus rather on decision making as such. Remember that in most conflict situations no single party is completely right or honest.

Try to have a strategy, giving a logical, understandable and fair sequence of events, as they will occur during the negotiation. Facilitate discovery rather than responsibility.

The role of culture

Culture influences the way in which we deal with conflict. According to Palmer (1990:101) these differences are:

* A people's attitude towards the phenomenon of conflict.

* The ways a people deal with conflict and with the other parties in conflict situations.

-The outcomes of conflict concerning the kind of agreement and the expected results thereof.

According to professor LP Vorster from the Department of Indigenous Law at Unisa, in a personal interview on 6 April 1998, the following differences between Western and African cultures should be kept in mind when dealing with conflict: The prevention of school conflict

Unresolved conflict can build up to such an extent that a compromise between people and groups is no longer possible (Simons et al 1993:21-23). Destructive school conflict wastes time and energy, and interferes with the implementation of the mission of the school.

According to professor LP Vorster, in the above-mentioned interview, the differences concerning the management of conflict should be kept in mind in conflict situations between people of different cultures. The African culture's perception of discipline, in the Vryburg incident, might be totally different from the Western culture's perception of culture. We should not look to a conflict situation between people of different cultures from a Western perception but should also try to look at it from an African perception. The negotiation process in a conflict situation between two cultures is therefore complex and should be handled carefully and with due allowance of different values, norms and ideologies.

What Could the Manager in the Multicultural School Do?

Effective management in a multicultural school situation can avoid shortfalls and possible problems. The educational manager should decide to what extent he can identify problems in his own situation. He should evaluate his own circumstances in order to get an indication of circumstances that require intervention in his school. He can now tackle these in a focused way in order for his teaching practice to function effectively.

The school principal and teachers of other multicultural schools need certain expertise in order to introduce negotiation and conflict management effectively into the multicultural school situation.

Conclusion

Conflict should be managed rather than eliminated. Since it seems that conflict is unavoidable, the educational manager should not try to eliminate it, but rather to minimalise or channel it into positive experiences If the large number of cultures (such as in the Republic of South Africa) is taken into consideration, the educational manager should be aware of the extent of the potential for conflict in multicultural school situations. He should also be aware of the fact that it takes more than a random attempt to resolve the conflict and should approach it deliberately. Proper education management can avoid conflict as well as shortfalls and possible problems. Education managers should evaluate their own circumstances in order to determine those aspects that require intervention. This should be tackled in a focussed way in order to ensure effective teaching. It is the duty of principals to ensure that they themselves as well as the members of their personnel are equipped to deal with cultural conflict.

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DR CH VAN DER LINDE Department of Educational Sciences Rand Afrikaans University AUCKLANDPARK The Republic of South Africa

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