Creating knowledge through Management Education: A case study of Human Resourse Management

Steyn, G M

The growing recognition of the value of knowledge embedded in skills, abilities and experiences of people, has become an unfolding discourse known as knowledge management. The applicability and benefit of 'knowledge' as a critical component of intellectual discourse has also become obvious to the academic community. Human Resource Management (BRM)is a module forming part of a Master's programme in Educational Management offered by a major distance education institution and taught over one year. This article explores the question: To what extent does the module HRM as part of the MEd in Educational Management contribute towards knowledge creation in the schools/organisations of the learners? A literature review of the concepts of knowledge creation and knowledge management provided a theoretical framework to the empirical investigation. A qualitative approach allowed the researcher to gain insight into learners' perceptions of their role in knowledge creation in their respective schools/organisations. Three themes emerged from the data analysis- personal and professional growth; sharing knowledge and skills in the school/organisation; and developing the organisation. According to the findings, the intervention used in the learning material extended each learner's repertoire of knowledge and skills; helped learners to achieve their own goals and developed the organisation in which they work.

Introduction

In the last two decades a new range of business improvement philosophies has emerged since existing versions of management and management theory were viewed as inadequate in a changing world (McAdam & McCreedy 1999:91; Bryans & Smith 2000:228; Martensson 2000:204). Currently organisations have to deal with an emphasis on knowledge, one of the most hotly debated issues in management literature at present (Roelof 1999-95; McElroy 2000:195). Moreover, the number of knowledge-based and knowledge-enabling organisations that consider intellectual capital as a prime source is increasing (Katz 1998:50; Roelof 1999:94; Hargreaves 1999:124; Smith 2000:236; McElroy 2000:195; Bassi 1997:26; Riley 1998:149). It is believed that staff members own the tools of production through the knowledge they possess (Kinnear & Sutherland 2000:106).

The increasing awareness of the value of knowledge embedded in experiences, skills and abilities of people has become an emerging discourse known as knowledge management (Todd 1999:11). Knowledge management is therefore developing as a significant challenge to improve organisations and has become a key concern of many (Katz 1998:50, Roelof 1999:94; Rolf & Ron 1999: 287; De Long & Seeman 2000:33; Martensson 2000:204; McElroy 2000:195; O'Connell 1999:33; Kinnear & Sutherland 2000:106). The success of organisations in the post-industrial world seemingly lies more in its intellectual abilities than in its physical assets (Hargreaves 1999:124; Bassi 1997:25; Riley 1998:154). This requires the transformation of personal knowledge into institutional knowledge that can be widely shared throughout the institution and appropriately applied (Bryans & Smith 2000:229). The acquisition of knowledge and skills can be seen as an investment in future (Robinson & Ellis 1999:27).

The relevance of and interest in 'knowledge' as a critical component of the intellectual discourse is also evident to the academic community (Shariq 1998: 10; Hargreaves 1999:125; Bassi 1997:25). The purpose of this article is to explore the manifestation of this discourse, knowledge management, in an academic programme. Firstly a literature review explores the key concepts: knowledge creation and knowledge management. This provides a theoretical framework to a qualitative investigation which examines the perceptions of distance learners enrolled for a module in HRM as part of a M Ed in Educational Management.

Research question

To understand the knowledge and skills created through learning material and the role played by learners in knowledge management, it is crucial to determine the views of learners. The following question provided the organising framework for the study: To what extent does the module HRM as part of the MEd in Educational Management contribute towards knowledge creation in the schools/organisations of the learners? In an attempt to answer this question, the article aims to:

* explain the concepts, knowledge creation and knowledge management, which are pertinent to the research question;

* provide an overview of the module in HRM

* determine learners' perceptions of how the learning material contributed towards knowledge management

What is knowledge creation?

The question of the nature of knowledge is very challenging (Martensson 2000:208). Furthermore, knowledge is not static and changes continuously (Katz 1998:50; Riley 1998:147). The old knowledge equation was: knowledge is power, so collect it. This has been currently replaced by: knowledge is power, so share it in order for it to multiply (Allee 1997:71). This implies that people and organisations should continuously renew and create more knowledge (Allee 1997-71). The competitive advantage lies in people's skills and knowledge and the organisation's ability to nurture the concept of lifelong learning (Bassi 1997:25; Robinson & Ellis 1999:27; Martensson 2000:208; Hicks 2000:71; Cascio 2001:4).

Knowledge results when people transform information into their personal knowledge store and create new knowledge (Todd 1999:11; Shariq 1998:11; O'Connell 1999:33; Martensson 2000:208). Knowledge is therefore viewed as the personal ability to interpret information through a process of giving meaning to the information and the attitude aimed at wanting to this. Considering the above, information has little value until it is processed in a person's mind (Martensson 2000:208; Roelof 1999: 10 1). One has to keep in mind that organisations do not practise information, they practise knowledge (McElroy 2000:201; O'Connell 199933).

Knowledge is a hidden asset in an organisation until the 'knowledge worker' releases it (Bagshaw 2000:179; Katz 1998:50; O'Connell 1999:33). Knowledge workers carry knowledge as a powerful resource which they, rather than the organisation, own (Kinnear & Sutherland 2000:106). What they know or do not know may be valuable for the organisation (Bukowitz & Williams 1999:2). Knowledge workers are valuable in the organisation because they look for innovation which increases choices and thereby increase the organisation's knowledge assets (Bagshaw 2000:180). Unfortunately these effects are not immediately seen since the individual's success reveals itself in organisational success at a later stage.in a world of rapid development, it is necessary to create new knowledge and ideas constantly to survive and prosper (Bagshaw 2000:179). Knowledge creation starts with people sharing their internal tacit knowledge by socialising with other people or by obtaining it in digital or analogue form (Riley 1998:148; Bassi 1997:25). The shared knowledge is then internalised by other people which generates new knowledge. This newly created knowledge is again shared with other people and the process begins again. It has no use if organisations have people with intellectual capital who do not share it (Katz 1998:50; Riley 1998:148, 149).

The creation of knowledge through self-reflection and interaction with other people is essentially a human process (Shariq 1998:111 Bassi 1997:26). Contexts are developed and interpreted during extensive interaction with situations and experiences in practice (Shariq 1998:11). As knowledge workers are involved in creating, sharing and diffusing knowledge in the organisation, they are simultaneously involved in the process of changing contexts, their own and that of others in the organisation (O'Connell 1999:33; Bassi 1997:261; Riley 1998:152; Kinnear & Sutherland 2000:106). Knowledge for its own sake has little advantage for the organisation unless is it put into action, in other words unless it is managed effectively (cf Bagshaw 2000:182).

What is knowledge management?

Knowledge management is defined as the collective knowledge of an organisation (Shockley 2000:57; O'Connell 1999:33). It is an integrated approach to identify, manage, share and capitalise on the know-how, experience and intellectual capital of staff in an organisation (Todd 1999:12; Katz 1998-50; Martensson 2000:205; Riley 1998:149; McKenna 2000:333; Rowley 2000(c):3). By managing knowledge, organisations can inter alia improve their efficiency, make professionals learn more efficiently and effectively, provide a better foundation for making decisions, improve communication between staff members and enhance synergy between staff members (Roelof 1999:95; O'Connell 1999:33). Organisations adopting knowledge management ensure that individual knowledge becomes organisational knowledge to improve organisational performance (Martensson 2000:214, Hicks 2000:71; Shockley 2000:57; Hargreaves 1999:126; Rossett 1999:64; Todd 1999:12). This effort to decode tacit knowledge into explicit information is regarded as the major contribution of knowledge management.

According to Bassi (1997:25) and Bassi, Cheney and Lewis (1998:52), the information age is already at or past the midpoint of its cycle. This explains the growing interest in knowledge as the new source of competitive advantage, the so-called knowledge era (Bassi et al 1998:52; Bassi 1997:25). To satisfy this shift in thinking, practitioners of knowledge management are now looking at the organisational learning community as a source of what it means for an individual and organisation to learn (McElroy 2000:199). According to this fundamentally new approach, knowledge management has shed its former preoccupation with information technology and now regards organisational learning as its best companion. With the new enlightened view it has given itself a new name second-generation knowledge management, which should not be confused with its first-generation, technology-centered heritage. The first generation concerns delivering information to support a task and concerns the individual performance in the field, but makes no mentioning of knowledge creation or organisational learning (McElroy 2000:200). One has to realise that the damage that the first-generation knowledge management has done to its own credibility could unfortunately influence the slow market acceptance of the new second-generation knowledge management (McElroy 2000:199; cf Bassi 1997:25).

Understanding the way in which knowledge is created, how it is shared and diffused throughout the organisation is at the core of the movement from first- to second-generation thinking (McElroy 2000:200; Riley 1998:154). It is clear, however, that a successful shift to the knowledge management paradigm will rely on social and cultural change and will not be facilitated by technology (Riley 1998-152). Unfortunately it takes time to build a culture of shared knowledge and shared development of ideas (Bagshaw 2000:180).

For the purpose of this article it can be stated that the focus of the module as regards knowledge management is less on technical aspects and more on the human side of management (Shariq 1998: 101 Keong, Willett & Yap 2001:269; Riley 1998:153). With respect to the module in Educational Management, knowledge education is clearly to be interpreted in the second, broader sense (Keong et al 2001:269).

In an attempt to understand knowledge management, theorists have designed models of knowledge management.

Different models of knowledge management

Knowledge category models

Nonaka and Takeuchi's (1995:58) view of knowledge management as a knowledge creation process as depicted in figure 1. This shows that knowledge is considered as consisting of tacit and explicit elements (McAdam & McCreedy 1999-95-1 Hargreaves 1999-127). Explicit knowledge is similar to information and can be stored outside the human mind, for example in a database (Hargreaves 1999:121; Rowley 1999:418; Smith 200:237; Martensson 2000:213). Information cannot be described as knowledge until it has been processed in the human mind (Martensson 2000:213; Todd 1999:12). Tacit knowledge on the other hand is oral and may be regarded as internalised and subjective and cannot be shared electronically (Rowley 1999:418; Rowley 2000(a):327; Smith 2000:237). People possess a great wealth of tacit knowledge that needs to be shared in the organisation (Bagshaw 2000:180; O'Connell 1999:33; Hong & Kuo 1999:208; Rowley 2000(b): 10). In knowledge management the focus is on translating tacit knowledge into explicit knowledge and to ensure that individual knowledge becomes organisational knowledge to improve organisational performance (Martensson 2000:214; Hicks 2000:71; Shockley 2000:57; Hargreaves 1999:126; Rossett 1999:641; Todd 1999:12).

According to Nonaka's knowledge management model (Nonaka & Takeuchi 1999:62) (top boxes of figure 1), tacit knowledge can be transferred through a process of socialisation into explicit knowledge in others and tacit knowledge can become explicit knowledge through a process of externalisation (McAdam & McCreedy 1999:96). The transfer of tacit knowledge between individuals can be done when individuals learn by watching one another (Rowley 2000(b):11). The transfer of explicit information across an organisation (explicit to explicit) can be done by means of print and electronic documents. The model also assumes that explicit knowledge can be transferred into tacit knowledge in others through a process of internalisation and explicit knowledge can be transferred to explicit knowledge in others through a process of combination (bottom boxes in figure 1) (McAdam & McCreedy 1999:96). There are four transforming processes in the model: socialisation (camaraderie), externalisation (formalising a body of knowledge), internalisation (translating theory into practice) and combination (combining existing theories) (McAdam & McCreedy 1999:96).

Boisot (1987) uses a different knowledge category model. Figure 2 depicts Boisot's model (1987:67), which distinguishes between knowledge being codified or uncodified and diffused or undiffused in an organisation. The term 'codified' is used for knowledge that can be readily prepared for transmission, such as financial statements while 'uncodified' refers to knowledge which cannot be easily prepared for transmission, for example experience (Boisot 1987:66). If knowledge is both codified and undiffused, then the knowledge is regarded as proprietary knowledge (Boisot 1987:68). Knowledge is prepared for transmission in this case, but it is only limited to a selectively small population on the 'need to know' basis, such as share price issues. Personal knowledge indicated in the left, bottom quadrant, covers knowledge that is uncodified and undiffused, such as perceptions and insights (Boisot 1987:69). The top right quadrant refers to public knowledge, which covers both codified and diffused knowledge in journals and books for example.

According to McAdam and McCreedy (1999:97), there is some correspondence between Nonaka's model and that of Boisot. Nonaka's categorisation of explicit and tacit knowledge partially parallels Boisot's codified and uncodified knowledge (McAdam & McCreedy 1999:97). The horizontal dimension is associated with the spread or diffusion of knowledge in both models (McAdam & McCreedy 1999:97).

Considering the above perspectives, knowledge management can be regarded as the effective management of knowledge in an organisation (Roelof 1999:101; O'Connell 1999:33). It attempts to achieve organisational goals through the strategy-driven motivation and facilitation of staff to develop and use their ability to interpret information by using available sources of information, experience, skills, etcetera.

Socially constructed models of knowledge management view people and learning issues as central to knowledge management and agree that knowledge management is not situated in the technology domain. Socially constructed models of knowledge management view knowledge as intrinsically linked with the social and learning processes in the organisation (Rowley 2000(b):8; McAdam & McCreedy 1999:98; Rossett 1999:65). Some organisations have been misled by the technology explosion to believe that technology could replace the skills and knowledge of an experienced person (Robinson & Ellis 1999:27). Technology development, however, has made the sharing, storing, distribution and access to information cost effective and user friendly (Riley 1998:146; McAdam & McCreedy 1999:93; Hicks 2000:71).

Authors differ in the classification of socially constructed models of knowledge management. Rossett's (1999:64) classification of knowledge management distinguishes between the content-oriented perspective in which data, information and presentations are collected and maintained but expands on the second perspective, the knowledge of people, by including a social construction of knowledge in the organisation (Rossett's 1999:64; cf Riley 1998:148). His second perspective is characterised by dialogue, action learning and problem- solving. Todd's classification (1999:11) almost negates the information technology perspective. He focuses his first perspective on human knowing, which includes people's competence, knowledge, skills, ideas and practices as well as accumulations of this knowing stored in filing cabinets, computer discs and books (cf Roelof 1999: 101). According to Todd (1999:11), people possess a wealth of knowledge that represents a significant resource for an organisation that has long been underestimated. Todd's (1999:11) second perspective includes sharing and utilising the content of intellectual capital to enhance an organisation's learning objectives.

McAdam and McCreedy (1999:98) developed a model based on Demerest's model, which focuses on the construction of knowledge including the social construction of knowledge in an organisation (McAdam & McCreedy 1999:98; Rowley 2001(c):3). The model identifies four phases of knowledge management in the organisation: knowledge construction, knowledge dissemination, knowledge use and knowledge embodiment (Rowley 2000(b): 11). The constructed knowledge is embodied in the organisation through both explicit programmes and a process of social interchange (McAdam & McCreedy 1999:98; cf Rowley 2000(b): 11). A process of dissemination of the espoused knowledge then follows throughout the organisation (McAdam & McCreedy 1999:98). Finally the knowledge is seen as useful for both the organisation and staff member (McAdam & McCreedy 1999:98). The solid arrows in figure 3 show the primary flow direction, while the open arrows show the more recursive flows. According to McAdam and McCreedy (1999:98), it Is clear from the model that knowledge management is not a simple sequential process as indicated in figure 4. This model allows knowledge management to be associated with the emerging social constructivistic paradigm while it also contributes to the current paradigm.

The core of the knowledge management process is the instruments with which learning is stimulated and knowledge is managed (Roelof 1999:104).

The knowledge management process

The knowledge management process depicted in figure 4 consists of four basic steps as people collect information they need to perform their daily tasks, use the knowledge to create value, learn from what they create and finally feed this knowledge back into the system for others to use

(Bukowitz & Williams 1999:9; O'Connell 1999:33).

Overview of the master' module in Education Management: Human Resource Management

Many management programmes have been criticised for being too theoretical (Zuber- Skerrit 1995:36). Cascio (2001:6) explains this by stating that theory is generated academically but not transferred into everyday practice. Between theory and practice a gap therefore manifests itself particularly in the people domain. It is therefore understandable that knowledge management has become common language in Educational Management over the past decade (Keong et al 2001:268).

HRM is a module forming part of a Master's programme in Educational Management. Offered through distance education, it is taught over the period of a year. Five study guides cover the main topics of the module, augmented by a number of articles. The study guides use 'guided didactic conversation' which enhances critical thinking and reinforces reflective learning processes (Guri-Rozenblit 1990: 76). The learners actively discover their own meaning by being involved in doing things (addressing problems) and thinking about their actions (Leder 1993: 12, Bonwell & Elson in Hobson 1996:45).

In facilitating learning it is assumed that practising managers have a wealth of experience, knowledge and skills which can be built on and that knowledge can be gained not only from the learning material but also from theory learners develop from their practice (cf Zuber-Skerrit 1995:39). The module is designed to promote creativity, critical thinking and communication and problem-solving skills (Keong et al 2001:272).

Table 2 outlines the two paradigms of teaching (Smith 2000:240). Since the module focuses on lecturers as facilitors of learning, the 'new' paradigm may be regarded as the teaching paradigm in the module.

Table 3 provides an overview of the approach in the design of the module. The content and the approach of the module largely emphasise learners' active involvement in practice. The HRM module described in this article demonstrates the educational shift from knowledge transmission to the facilitation of integrated workplace learning, that is a shift in paradigm from training to the formation of management knowledge, skills and attitudes and an organisational culture of continuous learning and development (Zuber-Skerrit 1995:38; Bassi et al 1998:56). This module is also designed to promote learning at individual and organisational level.

From the above it is clear that the module is work-intergrated, learner-centred, problem focused and based on adult learning principles (Zuber-Skerfit 1995:38). It is directed at both organisational development and personal and professional development of education managers who upgrade their knowledge and skills and exchange their experience and ideas with team members.

The module HRM aims at providing learners with (cf Monks & Walsh 2001:151

* advanced theoretical and analytical skills and abilities to diagnose, facilitate and implement changes within their schools/organisations;

* an increased self-awareness and capacity for problem-solving using quality management tools and techniques.

In order to attain these aims two compulsory assignments were set for the module. The first assignment covered a number of problems related to HRM areas. Learners had to identify a problem in practice, investigate the problem by means of a literature review and an empirical investigation, analyse the results, suggest solutions and make recommendations. The aim of this assignment was to give learners an understanding of the module's scope and to equip them with the necessary research skills to address problems in their own school/organisation. The second assignment required active involvement in a particular area of HRM at their institution. The intention was to use a team approach to analyse a problem and to identify and implement solutions in their school/organisation employing quality management tools and techniques.

Research design

A qualitative research design was chosen since it allowed the researcher to gain insight into learners' perceptions of their role in knowledge creation in their respective schools/organisations. Survey research was employed to describe the learners' perceptions regarding the application of knowledge management to the module in HRM.

Sample and data collection

Purposeful sampling was used based on a number of factors. Learners enrolled for the module HRM had to complete assessment forms for each of two assignments. The first section of the assessment form consisted of self-assessment, where learners were required to assess themselves by means of a memorandum and assessment criteria. The assessment form also included a section where learners could reflect on their learning experience and its influence on practice. Through reflective practice, practitioners (the learners) reflect on past and present actions to improve future performance (Kottkamp, 1990:183). This approach seemed appropriate for the professional development of educational managers in HRM because it allows learners' (practitioners) to reflect in and on action (Schon 1995:34, Griffin & Kilgore 1995:56). Leder (1993:6) agrees with this strategy, stating that learners should be active participants in the learning process and not merely passive recipients of information transmitted to them by others. This view also supports the knowledge management paradigm because knowledge results when people personally and actively transform information into their personal knowledge store and create new knowledge (Todd 1999:11; Shaniq 1998:11; O'Connell 1999:33; Martensson 2000:208). This section in the assessment form consisted of open-ended questions. For the purpose of this article the following questions in the assessment forms are highlighted: What did you learn from your involvement in the learning material? What new knowledge and skills have you developed? What knowledge and skills did you apply in your school/organisation? Table 4 provides the relevant details and number of assessment forms received.

An open-ended questionnaire was also given to 76 learners (of a population of 184) who attended a HRM seminar on the institution's campus in October 2001. It represents 41.3% of learners enrolled for the module during 2001. Where the assessment forms focus on the learning experience of the particular assignment, the questionnaire shows the overall perception of learners' learning experience. The following questions were posed: What did you learn personally and professionally in the module HRM?; How did you share what you have learnt with staff in your school/organisation?'; and What effect has your learning had on the development of your school/organisation?

Data analysis

Data (the open-ended responses in the two assessment forms and questionnaire) were read into the computer. They were coded when reading through the notes for the first time (Poggenpoel 1998:337). Significant comments were grouped into categories and units of meaning were organised into major categories (cf Poggenpoel, Nolle, Dorfling, Greef, Gross, Muller, Nel & Roos 1994: 132). A number of subcategories within each major category were then identified.

Findings

After reading and rereading the comments on the assessment forms and questionnaire, three themes emerged from the analysis of data: personal and professional growth, sharing knowledge and skills in the school/organisation; developing the organisation.

Personal and professional growth

The responses showed that learners experienced personal and professional development as one respondent succinctly indicated 'I learnt how to become a resourceful person, full of knowledge and skills'. From this category the following subcategories emerged from the analysis: the development of management skills-, the practical nature of the module; acquiring knowledge and skills in topics in HRM; and development of problem-solving skills.

The development of management skills

Many learners referred to the development of their managerial skills. Comments such as the following illustrate their perceptions: 'l learnt that schools are characterised by problems and challenges that need to be managed. I acquired good management skills and I am now able to solve organisational problems'; 'I learnt the skill of organising information, analysing and synthesing information, crucial ingredients for management'. One learner referred to his or her previous managerial competence. 'Human relationship skills were lacking on my side prior to the module. But now I have improved my social life and professionally I have learnt to organise the school and to help staff to be involved in participation and the running of the school'.

For some learners the module has succeeded in changing their attitudes towards themselves. 'I can now approach problems with confidence'; and 'It has taught me patience and perseverance - the ingredients to gain success in life.'

The practical nature of the module

A few learners stressed the practical nature of the module. The following comment describes their perceptions. 'I learnt that the knowledge and skills I acquire throughout my studies can be applied practically in our schools. By doing so, one can improve the effectiveness of our schools.' One learner even went so far as to say: 'I have generated my own theory in practice. From now on I can solve any problem in practice'.

Acquiring knowledge and skills of topics in HRM

Many learners referred to the acquiring of knowledge and skills on the topics covered in the module. Comments include the following: 'I gained a lot of new knowledge and skills on the different topics. I developed new knowledge about the problems of beginner teachers and strategies to be used to help them to adjust in their work'; I've mastered a variety of skills in resolving conflict to assist my colleagues in addressing conflict situations'; 'I've learnt the importance of appraisal and how it should be done... I've also learnt to deal with stress and I can help someone with stress', 'I learnt that staff development programmes should be carefully designed. I also learnt the proper way of staff appraisal and about factors that motivate teachers. I now realise that teachers can be effectively motivated in their jobs'.

Development of problem-solving skills

Since both assignments employed a problem-approach, it could be expected that learners would comment on this. Comments included their development of problem- solving skills; 'I learnt that solving a problem is systematic and not haphazard. There are valuable tools that one may use to solve problems', 'I can analyse a problem, identify the main cause of the problem, generate suitable solutions and implement it using the various tools highlighted in the module' - 'I acquired the necessary skills and knowledge to share ideas with others, to solve a problem successfully and to choose the most effective problem-solving tool' 'The staff and I used the problem-solving tools to deal with problems and it has been easy to solve them'. The latter comment acknowledging the role of other staff members in solving problems was supported by several others: 'Problems need to be understood before being solved. A group of people can do a better job that one person'; 'Working together is a key to problem-solving', 'Being able to use the process tools in problem solving effectively not only helped me, but contributed to the development of the committee members as well'.

The acquired knowledge and skills of the individual are meaningless in knowledge management unless shared with others.

Sharing with others what has been learnt

If knowledge and skills only reside in a few staff members, the organisation may face failure. This assumption was supported by some learners as expressed in the following comment 'I started to view the school situation critically and more professionally that all involved with it should play their part optimally so that the main aim, i.e. learning can take place'.

The process of sharing knowledge and skills is crucial in knowledge management. Practitioners are often ignorant of the knowledge that exists among themselves and as a consequence they do not share and tap from that knowledge (Hargreaves 1999:124). The following subcategories show how knowledge and skills are shared in practice.

Organising workshops

Many learners referred to using workshops for sharing their acquired knowledge and skills. This strategy is illustrated by the following comments: 'I'm the head teacher and often share knowledge and information with my staff by organising developmental workshops'; 'I conducted mini-workshops and had short discussions on some of the topics at staff meetings','I held a number of workshops with my colleagues and we did share what I have learnt in the module'; and 'By holding school-based workshops and in-service training I taught them (staff members) the strategies to resolve conflict. I also helped them with staff appraisal'.

Working together

The module stimulated learners to work in teams. The team approach to share knowledge and skills was supported by many respondents: 'I learnt how to share ideas with others and to solve a problem successfully in the team'; and 'Cooperative working in a team has become more meaningful to me; organising and breaking down tasks in order to build towards a goal is clearer. I learnt how to apply process tools in a group of individuals who are new to the problem solving process with confidence'.

Informal discussions

Apart from more structured forms of sharing knowledge and skills, may respondents also referred to informal interactions with staff members: 'I often talk to teachers about what they would like me to help them with' and 'I had an informal discussion with the rest of the management team. I have tried to motivate my staff through informal discussions'.

The ultimate aim of knowledge management is to increase the organisation's knowledge assets.

Developing the organisation

According to a number of learners, their newly acquired knowledge and skills also contributed towards the development of their school/organisation. Comments include the following: 'Since my involvement in this module there have been many changes in my institution such as when following correct channels communication and the correct way of staff appraisal'; 'Our school had a lot of problems, i.e. late coming of both learners and educators. I acquired knowledge and skills on how could we go about solving such problems. Our school can now be regarded as a learning organisation in our district'; 'Although I cannot lie and say there is a 100% positive change, to some educators there is a noticeable change and elements of development'; 'There is positive development in job satisfaction, conflict resolution and stress management'; 'With regards to the school management team they have developed and there's a remarkable change in their management, and 'The principal of my school has been very excited about the progress in the school and keeps telling me about other problems we need to deal with'. One respondent was honest with his or her comment: 'There has been development although not adequate enough'.

In this category two subcategories emanated: A positive change in human relations and school improvement.

A positive change in human relationships

Many respondents referred to a change in human relations such as: 'It has led to a most positive approach to interpersonal relations'; 'Cooperation with parents has been improved. Teacher-learner relationship has so much improved and all these improved the performance and standard of the school.'; and 'The human relationships between staff members improved dramatically which in turn resulted in a big happy staff. Their productivity increased compared to that before'. Some learners also referred to less conflict among staff members as explained by these comments: 'Because of my ideas of resolving conflict, most of the problems are being resolved at school'; and 'There has been a major reduction in conflict in my school'.

School improvement

Some respondents referred to the impact of sharing their knowledge. 'Our school has improved a lot since I have started sharing my learning experience with my colleagues and persuaded them to try to implement what I have learnt in dealing with certain issues'; and 'The knowledge I gained and shared helped a great deal in improving my school'. The types of improvement are explained in the following comments: 'The image of the school has changed tremendously'; 'The working rate has improved in my school. There is commitment in the promotion of the culture of teaching and learning'; 'Teachers are enthusiastic about their work. Team spirit and cooperation are enhanced. The culture of teaching and learning is established'; 'My school is now being administered in a more professional way. All the stakeholders are able to be accountable in executing their duties. Teachers now understand their professional obligations and the role they have to play in developing the school for the benefit of the entire community'; 'We are now able to work in unison'; 'Our school has improved as regards the quality of management and in terms of performance. We are now among the best schools in the circuit'. The latter comment concerning their outstanding performance was also confirmed by two other respondents: 'Today the department and parents are admiring the organisation of the school. The school turns to be a model school in the area. I am still on the way to develop the school'; and 'The senior management team are equipped with skills and knowledge in managing the school effectively. Now our school is one of the best in our district'.

Discussion

In a predictable world education and training programmes can be organised and implemented so that staff may acquire the necessary skills (Bryans & Smith 2000:235). These acquired skills will, however, be the possession of the individual (Bryans & Smith 2000:235). According to the knowledge management, paradigm learning depends on the interaction of people and not a possession of an individual (Bryans & Smith 2000:235). Furthermore, the social nature of learning allows for people to meet one another, gives them time to do so and tells them that talk and the sharing ideas are valued (Bryans & Snuith 2000:235, Bassi et al 1998:54, Riley 1998:153).

The structure and processes established in the module reflect its commitment to education practice as well as the theory and principles of knowledge management (cf Keong et al 2001:274). The module also links with socially constructed models of knowledge management that view people and learning issues as central to knowledge management. Judging by the learners' generally overwhelming positive response to their learning, learners learnt to solve organisational problems, which are significant not only to themselves but also to the organisation (cf Zuber-Skerrit 1995: 42). Furthermore, the module reveals some resemblance to McAdam and McCreedy's knowledge management model (1999:98), which identifies four phases of knowledge management in the organisation: knowledge construction, knowledge dissemination, knowledge use and knowledge embodiment. According to the learners, they developed new skills, created new insights and exchanged their views and experiences in meetings, workshops and informal interactions in the school/organisation. This in turn has had an influence on the development of the school/organisation. The intervention used in the learning material therefore extended each learner's repertoire of knowledge and skills and helped learners to develop themselves and the organisation. Learners accordingly gained mastery of the field of HRM and quality management in education.

In the learning process, the three goals were met: knowledge building; skills development; and self-awareness (cf Doherty 1998:615). These included processes of consultation, idea generating methods, group decision-making and problem-solving strategies, oral persuasion and how to conduct effective group meetings. By intergrating and applying knowledge and skills in the learning material links between theory and practice have been achieved. The channeling of the learning material towards real life problems experienced by learners meant that their involvement held far more significance and relevance for them as individuals and as staff members of a school/organisation (cf Monks & Walsh 2001:153).

Since this has been an exploratory study on knowledge management in an education management module, it is necessary to expand the study to determine the perceptions of other role players concerning their acquired knowledge and skills and the development of the school/organisation.

Conclusion

Since the world of work has changed, learners should be prepared for higher levels of knowledge and skills, not only in the curriculum, but also in the professional and personal qualities required in the transformed work place (Hargreaves 1999:122). These qualities include aspects such as autonomous, self-organising, networking, innovative, creative and to access sources for skills required to perform a given task (Hargreaves 1999:122).

A major work of knowledge management is to establish a learning environment in which people (learners) are able to conduct all sorts of learning activities and share knowledge with other people in the organisation (Bukowitz & Williams 1999:2; Hong & Kuo 1999:215; Martensson 2000:214). Different learning activities serve different sharing functions and it is important to master each sharing function in order to enhance the performance of knowledge management in an organisation.

In conclusion, employing a knowledge management philosophy in designing a module is challenging because it is necessary to understand and manage the relationship between knowledge and the social contexts that shapes knowledge (Stromquist & Samoff 2000:323; Rowley 2000(b):14).

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PROF GM STEYN

Faculty of Education University of South Africa Republic of South Africa

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