teacher's stress and its implications for the school as an organization: How can TQM help?, The

As far as time and importance are concerned, work comprises a large part of people's lives. On the one hand, work has the reward (psychologically and financially), yet to damage on the other. The latter may be the result of too much unnecessary stress which in its turn may cause illness and even death. Organizations suffer considerable losses due to the illness and poor productivity of employees. A school is also affected by absenteeism or the inability to perform consistently at a high level. In a new era, in which ideally more work should be done by fewer people, members of the staff of a school should be productive, quality of work should be excellent and no communication gaps should exist as a result of stress and anxiety. Effective management techniques in the school and classroom are the best way of preventing stress in both pupils and teachers. A new management paradigm, named Total Quality Management, is recently coming to the fore in schools. This management approach can help reduce the teacher's stress and thus eventually contribute to more effective education.

Introduction

Maples (1980:23) states that each historical era is characterized by certain distinctly identifiable physical diseases. The Great Plague and leprosy predominated in the Middle Ages; syphilis and deficiency diseases, such as scurvy, during the Renaissance and opulence diseases, such as gout, during the Baroque era. Tuberculosis was prevalent in the eighteenth century (the era of Romanticism); whereas the nineteenth century was brought to its knees by diseases such as pox, diphtheria and enteric fever should not be taken tightly. Pelletier (1977:7) wrote that all diseases are of psychosomatic (stress related) origin. People's reaction to stress determines the quality of their lives, health and working ability.

As far as time and importance are concerned, work comprises a large part of people's lives. On the one hand, work has the potential to reward (psychologically and financially) and to damage on the other. Concerning the latter, the focus of this article is upon psychosomatic diseases caused by inordinate stress and how those diseases affect the school as organization. The educational manager in the school should take note of the affective aspect (positive or negative) of the teacher's profession. In this regard Greenberg (1969:20-21) remarks:

Within the teacher's emotional life are the forces that most powerfully affect the entire teaching process. The human, emotional qualities of the teacher are the very heart of teaching. No matter how much emphasis is placed on such other qualities in teaching as educational technique, technology, equipment or buildings," 'the humanity of the teacher is the vital ingredient if children are to learn.'"

This quotation emphasizes the importance of the affective or emotional qualities of the teacher (positive and negative) in the teaching profession. Consequently, the issue of stress in teaching is crucial, particularly in contemporary times where a considerable percentage of illnesses is attributed to excessive stress. All people are susceptible to stress at one time or another. Stress can usually be avoided or dealt with by means of specific mechanisms. Gray and Freeman (1987:144) maintain it is undeniable that good management techniques in the school are the best way to prevent stress in both learners and teachers. The author supports this view wholeheartedly.

In a new era, more than ever before, the school must give account of its financial administration. The search for quality is on the increase. Increasing emphasis is laid on the human aspect in organizations. Ideally more work should be done by fewer people. A new management paradigm, Total Quality Management (TQM), which stresses the use of human potential, has recently come to the fore in organizations worldwide and also in schools. American teachers are looking for new ways to solve school problems, such as socio-psychological distress (Fields, 1993:4). At the beginning of a new millennium, the issue of teacher stress is significant for the educational manager, because excessive stress may negatively affect the quality of the teacher's work. The stress of teachers has been widely discussed and written about and the devastating consequences of stress has been thoroughly documented in teacher journals.

What is stress?

Because of Selye's pioneering work in the study of stress, he is called "the father of stress." He distinguishes between eustress (pleasant stress) and distress (unpleasant stress) (Selye, 1976:74). Concerning eustress, Selye (1974:96) maintains that stress which finds its origins in successful activities, bring about a feeling of contentment and youthful vigour. As a matter of fact, (Selye (1974:85) even goes so far as to call stress "the spice of life". For instance, the teacher should encounter challenges to motivate him, such as putting effort in the preparation of lessons. Success, love and achievement are examples of pleasant stress. The total absence of stress is just as disastrous in life as too much of it. Thus too little work and too much monotony may bring forth the same physiological and psychological symptoms as too much work.

Slabbert (1986:12) stresses that limited anxiety is nature's method to prepare a human being for achievement. His illustration is the case of a psychiatrist and professor living in Pretoria who maintains that being subjected to stress daily makes one exceptionally 'alert' and keeps the senses and mind particularly sharp. Swart (1987:163) maintains that too little stress may even lead to underaverage achievement. Therefore stress may lead to unparalleled motivation. However, it may also cause unprecedented damage.

The latter is caused by distress. Too much stress is dangerous and debilitating and may impact negatively on one's well-- being. This is clearly illustrated by Hebb's theory (in Dunham 1986:95). According to this theory, undemanding work may lead to boredom for the worker. More and greater demands are stimulating, and create energy, but if this stretch extends beyond the person's ability to handle them, they may lead to high levels of anxiety and diminished work efficiency. Continuous demands without an increase in handling sources may lead to fatigue, exhaustion and even burnout (the utmost form of negative stress).

According to Posner and Leitner (1981:10), it is unclear why one kind of stress (distress) is pathogenic and the other (eustress) apparently not, even though both have common physiological substrates in the sympathic nervous system.

Wiechers (1993:123) maintains that one's stress load consists of the demands made by the environment on a person. Overload indicates demands that are more than what a person can physiologically or psychically cope with. She points out that stressoverload is not only pressures exerted on someone from outside, but also each person's unique reaction to such overload. Each individual is unique; consequently some will experience stress under certain circumstances; whilst others will not experience stress under exactly the same circumstances. A life without stress is impossible. All people experience stress.

Early in the twentieth century, Cannon (in Wiechers, 1993:12) described the body's reaction to stress as fight-or-flight. Certain physiological changes take place when a person physically finds himself in a dangerous situation. Muscles become tense; the heartbeat quickens; blood-sugar levels rise; the number of leucocytes increase; breathing accelerates and the person may start perspiring. Without going into further particulars, it can be briefly mentioned that the person may be mobilized physiologically and may enter a state of preparation either to fight or flee. Greenberg (1987:5) puts it so: "... the unused stress products break down the body and psychosomatic disease may result.

Diseases caused by stress

Furthermore, Wiechers (1993:124 and

125) points out that when, inter alia, a person's self-concept is threatened, the brain gives a message to the body to prepare itself to fight or flee. It is not always possible, however, because individuals in certain professions (such as teaching) are supposed to control their emotions. The problem that now arises is that the body is physiologically prepared for a reaction that is psycho-socially unacceptable. Thus the reaction is prohibited or blocked (Wiechers, 1993:125). In the long-term, this suppression of emotions may result in certain psychosomatic changes in the body.

When considering the demands made by educational institutions, teaching involves great responsibility on behalf of the teacher. The teacher cannot leave young children on their own for even a short while. For this reason teaching makes great demands on one's health and stress-- related diseases abound. Too much distress may cause such diseases and even death. Greenberg and Valetutti (1980:9) remark rightly that to ignore stress and the related diseases and ailments is a slow way of committing suicide. Greenberg (1984:7) explains that stress gradually builds up, sometimes slowly and sometimes rapidly. When this is allowed, it may lead to such anxiety that it will, like a blown-up balloon, cause a sudden and negative shock to the system. A clear relation exists between a person's mental state and his or her health. As far back as 1950, Alexander (in Du Toit 1988:4) introduced the concept of psychosomatic diseases. These diseases cannot be ascribed to an organic cause, but can be described as an organic consequence of a psychic condition - stress appearing as a state of illness. Heartdisease is probably the most important of these diseases.

During the last quarter of the twentieth century, coronary disease has become the primary cause of death among people in Western civilization. Russek and Russek (in Posner and Leitner 1981:10) mention that stress has only recently been accepted as an important etiological (causative) factor in coronary disease. Earlier research correlated heredity, diet, other diseases, electrolytic hormonal patterns, anatomical configurations, personality characteristics, social pressure and management style with blood-vessel constricting heart disease. Russek and Russek showed that research had clearly indicated that stress may be a catalytic factor in the detrimental role that fat plays in the diet. This, together with high levels of stress and raised blood cholesterol levels, could lead to progressive arteriosclerosis. Posner and Leitner (1981:11) conclude that preventative skills in stress management may be necessary as a part of the pattern of routine behavior when the risk of coronary heart and other stress-related diseases are reduced, thereby prolonging life.

D'Arienzo et al (1982:29-32) mention, inter alia, the following diseases that are caused by stress: heart disease and attack, tension, asthma, diabetes, infections, allergies and diseases of skin, back pain, arthritis, gastric ulcers, stomach afflictions, kidney diseases and problems, bladder problems and headaches such as migraine and sinus. A person who suffers from stress, may abuse drugs or alcohol, have an increased tendency to accidents an make excessive use of medicines. He or she may frequently absent from work and may be unproductive.

Implications of teacher stress

As has been mentioned, education is an emotionally exhausting profession. As much as one thousand hundred interpersonal interactions may occur in one day in the life of the teacher (Truch, 1980:10). Truch remarks: "How can we expect maximum performance from an individual with that kind of demand? And how can we calculate the loss to a child's personal growth because of it?" This remark demonstrates that teacher distress is detrimental for the teaching-learning situation. Children will inevitably also experience stress when their teacher is moody. A teacher who experiences stress may often be absent from work lot and tends to he unproductive. Moreover, Dunham (1981:209-210) as well as Faber and Miller (1981:237) mention the following negative outcomes of teacher stress: declining professional achievement; a lack of patience or sympathy with children or colleagues; carelessness regarding appearance; a disregard for time coupled with inordinate clock-watching and withdrawal from personnel activities.

Furthermore, the consequences of teacher stress are far-reaching. No teacher will be able to perform at his/her best while experiencing distress or when feeling unwell. The quality of education is hampered by stress. Moreover, the school as an organization is harmed when members of staff are often absent, ill or accident prone. When teachers are unproductive and the quality of education is sub-standard, a country's economy is also eventually affected.

Total Quality Management in the school as a means of reducing teacher stress

Total Quality Management

TQM is a new management approach directed at producing quality organizations. But what is quality? John Ruskin (in Fields, 1993:13) describes quality as follows: 'Quality is never an accident; it is always the result of intelligent effort. It is the will to produce a superior thing".

In the light of the above definition of quality, Omachonou and Ross (1994:3) define TQM as follows: "... the integration of all functions and processes within an organization in order to achieve continuous improvement of the quality of goods and services. The goal is customer satisfaction"

Total Quality Education

In terms of the application of the principles of TQM to education, TOE aims at improving and enhancing the quality school as organization in order to fulfill the expectations of its clients. To realize this aim insight in the teacher's human potential is a necessity.

The school as an organization

The characteristics of the school that firstly make it into an organization are the presence of people and secondly, the existence of a common goal and a certain regulated structure (Basson, Van der Westhuizen and Nieman, 1990:640). The school unlike industry, is never concerned with production based on a profit motive. Teachers have no control over the 'quality' of the children with whom they encounter. Nor do children come in neat, homogenic packets, ready to learn and play (Fields, 1993:2). The demand upon school teachers differ from the demand upon employees working in industry because the former's demands are much more complex. Since the school, is focused on educative teaching, there are people (teachers and children) involved. Therefore, the school as organization is much more complicated than may appear at first sight. Consequently, different demands that may cause stress, are made on the teacher..

The school and industry share, however certain common characteristics, as financial administration and the recruitment and management of personnel. Certain management tasks, such as planning, organizing, leadership and control are executed in both commerce and education. Thus, many facets of industry could be very fruitfully related to education (Care should, however, be taken never to lose sight of the aims of the school, namely education). Fields (1993:10) stresses the fact that Total Quality Education (TQE) includes all the facets of TQM, namely dignity, respect and the value of all human potential.

The relevance of TQM for reducing teacher stress

Certain facets of TQM (Fields 1993:47-- 90) may contribute to the reduction of teacher stress:

The problem-solving method

According to Fields (1993: 47), research shows that systematic thought promotes understanding and clarity and helps solve problems. Hurried solutions should be avoided. A problem-solving framework may prevent unnecessary wastage of time in the search for solutions. Such a framework may also contribute to the reduction of stress. An experienced school principal may help his/her inexperienced members of staff by suggesting solutions to the problems they often encounter.

Learning the correct attitude

Crosby (1979:211) maintains that people generate problems by their attitude toward their work. Satisfactory work that is just good enough is not acceptable. Mediocrity is an enemy that must not be ignored. Quality should be stressed. A teacher who devotes himself heart and soul to his work will inevitably experience less stress and greater work satisfaction.

Identification of the Client

Client satisfaction is one of the most important principles of TQM.The view that the client is always right, is synonymous with successful industry. According to Fields (1993:13-25), educational managers can simplify their task greatly when they can identify with their clients. It is not the state or the family which is the meaningful external client, as they, together with the school are in the service of the client. An organization may define the client's case poorly and thus contribute to inferior quality. Schools may blunder totally in their views concerning the expectations of the secondary school.

The family, state, school and church should bear the responsibility of preparing the child for the demands that the external client is going to make. Thus, by knowing that he or she is not solely responsible for quality education may help to reduce the teacher's stress.

Compulsory in-service training for all involved in Education

Integral to TQM is the idea of continuous improvement. The Japanese call the principle of continuous improvement "kaizen". According to the principles of TOM, everyone involved in education, namely the teacher, the parent, the principal and other office bearers should be continuously trained in order to fulfill their task to the best of their ability. Uncertainty may bring forth unnecessary stress. Teachers' stress levels may be reduced when they ensure that they are still on the right track with their teaching through in-service training.

Reducing anxiety

Anxiety must be reduced, because it obstructs efficiency. Personnel in the school are not able to do their best when they lack job security. They may be hesitant to make suggestions, ask questions or look for new solutions. People who feel threatened by their superiors, are unable to do quality work. Anxiety causes resislance to change, inhibited communication and possibly even an inability to absorb new knowledge. Therefore, bad management often weakens the organization through its insensitivity towards and lack of appreciation of personnel.

In contemporary society, organizations, such as the school and church, sometimes try to make people conform (Fields, 1993:57). This may inhibit creativity. Teachers may be hesitant to deviate from norms set by the principal. The principal can contribute greatly to teachers' creativity and reduce anxiety by encouraging teachers to try out new ideas.

People have unlimited potential

According to the TQM approach, personnel should not be deprived of work pride. The principal who treats his members of staff as if they have unlimited potential, increases their self-assurance, enabling them to take risks and to utilize their creativity to the full.

Conclusion

Undoubtedly TOE has many advantages for the effective management of the school and the reduction of teacher stress. In this regard, Fields (1993:9) states: "TQE is a process that builds the human spirit, strengthens bonds between people, and expands the mind of every participant."

In a rapidly changing society this management paradigm can help teachers to manage change significantly and creatively and thus to reduce unnecessary stress. TQE should, however, not be seen as a panacea for preventing stress, but only as one of the ways in which the aim could be realized, thereby enhancing the quality of education in general.

References

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DR. CH VAN DER LINDE

Department of Educational Sciences

Faculty of Education and Nursing

Rand Afrikaans University, P.O. Box 524, AUCKLAND PARK, South Africa

Author Note

This article is dedicated to professor Russel Cassel, the mentor and friend of the author and editor of this magazine. She met him for the first time in 1990 whilst doing her research for her doctorate on stress. Ever since that time, he was a source of inspiration for her academic career.

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