The impacts of tourism on natural resources - includes bibliography

EDITOR'S NOTE: Kathleen Andereck is an assistant professor m the Department of Leisure Studies at the University of North Carolina at Greensboro. Her research interests are in marketing and behavioral aspects of natural and cultural resource based tourism.

Tourism is an industry that depends on the physical environment. Recent research has emphasized the importance of the environment for tourism activity and development. It has also been concerned with the impacts that tourism has on natural resources (Green, Hunter and Moore, 1990). Most of the impact of tourism occurs in destination areas, around service centers, or along transportation routes. Impacts are caused by both development of structures, such as roads and buildings, as well as by the tourists themselves (May, 1991).

Nearly all impact studies have been concerned with natural or semi-natural areas, with very little work focused on urban settings (Green et al., 1990). These studies have examined specific sites, such as alpine areas (Goodman, 1989; Rodriguez, 1987), islands (Wilkinson, 1989), coastal areas (Martinez-Taberner, Moya, Ramon and Forteza, 1990), and other areas (Farfell and Runyon, 1991). Additionally, most research has been reactionary and centered around the negative impacts that tourism has on natural resources after the damage has taken place. Thus, it is difficult to document the process of environmental change resulting from tourism activity. Tourism is often blamed to an unreasonable degree for resource degradation (Farrell and McLellan, 1987). While tourism does at times result in negative environmental impacts, there are also environmental benefits associated with tourism, including fostering appreciation for the environment.

Tourism Impacts

Air and water. Tourism is thought to be a "clean" industry without the pollution problems associated with other types of economic development. Relative to some industries this is true. However, tourism does have related pollution problems that should be considered. The majority of these are related to traffic, tourist infrastructure and superstructure, and the activities of tourists (Hamele, 1988).

Air pollution is a result of emissions from vehicles and airplanes. Although tourism likely accounts for very little of the overall emissions problem, the recent issues of ozone destruction, the greenhouse effect and global warming make tourism related air pollution a concern (Wheatcroft, 1991). Most tourism related air pollution stems from vehicle traffic (Hamele, 1988). Detrimental impacts on air resources are greater in areas with high concentrations of traffic. In rural areas air pollution as a result of tourism is minimal. In congested areas, however, emissions negatively influence vegetation, soil and visibility.

Although only one percent of tourism related air pollution is attributed to air travel, airlines are concerned with this problem, are aware of the need to reduce emissions, and have been working to do so (Wheatcroft, 1991). Finally, heating systems of tourist-related buildings emit some polluting substances, but this is minimal relative to vehicle emissions (Hamele, 1988).

Water resources are a prime attraction for tourism and recreational developments, and thus suffer impacts. Water pollution is a result of waste water generated by tourist facilities and runoff, and occurs on inland lakes and streams as well as in the marine environment. Much of this is non-point pollution such as septic tank seepage, lawn fertilizer, road oil and runoff from disturbed soil. Extra nutrients in the water system causes eutrophication of lakes and streams, which in turn influences other aquatic life. Lakes choked with weeds and beaches with algae, a process accelerated by human influence, have become common in some areas (Gartner, 1987). Inadequately treated effluent or raw sewage discharged into in water resources is a health hazard, as well. Water pollution is an increasingly serious problem in some areas such as the Mediterranean (Mathieson and Wail, 1982).

Sedimentation is an additional impact associated with tourism, a result of erosion, and thus related to deforestation and plant destruction. It is an especially large problem when tourist facilities are being constructed. Water pollution problems and sedimentation have been directly linked to near-by developments. Sedimentation reduces the clarity of water and affects aquatic life (Goldman, 1989). It can also fill in lakes and reservoirs over an extensive period of time.

In addition to the water pollution problems, tourism requires above average quantities of water for washing, swimming pools, lawn water and other uses. This is particularly problematic in areas where fresh water is scarce (Hamele, 1988).

Flora and fauna. Research looking at the impact of tourism of wildlife has focused on larger mammals and birds in natural environments. Thus, our understanding of tourism effects on wildlife is limited. Research does suggest that tourism affects wildlife in numerous ways. Development is increasingly encroaching on the habitats of numerous types of animals. For some species, parks and preserves are now the only sanctuary. Unfortunately, for species that require large territories or engage in migratory behaviors, these relatively small areas of protected land are not enough.

The impact of consumptive activities, such as hunting and trapping, are obvious. One consumptive activity, the destruction of wildlife for souvenirs, such as elephant tusks and lion-claw necklaces, is due to poaching and is a major threat to wildlife, especially in Africa (Mathieson and Wall, 1982; Olokesusi, 1990). Even nonconsumptive activities such as observation and photography affect wildlife. Most of the impacts relate to behavior disturbances among the animals as a result of the presence of tourists (Kovacs and Innes, 1990; 0lokesusi, 1990). Tourist activity has caused changes or disruption in a number of behaviors such as: predatory and feeding activities, breeding (Edwards, 1987), mother-offspring interaction (Kovacs and Innes, 1990), and other behaviors.

Marine wildlife has also been seriously harmed by tourism in some areas. Disposing of waste into the marine environment, either from point sources or non-point runoff, is detrimental to sea life, especially when waste is toxic (Miller, 1987). Wildfire on coral reefs has been damaged and destroyed by trampling from scuba divers; boat anchors, chains and discharge of refuse (including cruise ships); and reef walking at low tide. Overcollecting and hunting by divers for both personal and commercial purposes has also harmed reef wildlife (Boo, 1990; Salm, 1986).

Perhaps one of the most notable findings for managers regarding tourists' impacts on wildlife was that people's behavior affected the extent of impact. Groups that made modest attempts to minimize disturbance, such as walking calmly and slowly into areas containing wildlife, in this case harp seals, had discernibly less impact (Kovacs and Innes, 1990). Kovacs and Innes (1990) suggested that tourists may have less impact on wildlife if tourists are restricted during certain time periods (such as birthing seasons), and are educated about appropriate behavior toward wildlife.

Vegetation frequently serves as an attraction for tourists, notably the redwoods of California and spruce trees of the Black Hills (Mathieson and Wall, 1982). Some impacts on plant life are caused by development. Constructing buildings necessitates the removal of plant life, which negates the benefits of vegetative cover such as moisture retention and erosion prevention (01okesusi, 1990). Tourism has led to deforestation in an effort to provide for the needs of tourists, with resultant mudslides, flooding and avalanches. In one instance, deforestation to provide ski areas for tourists resulted in substantial mudslide damage to villages in Tyrol, thus causing impacts beyond the environmental damage (Simmons, 1988). Deforestation and plant removal has also resulted from the collection of firewood (Boo, 1990; Karan and Mather, 1985), over-collecting of some species in certain areas, and forest fires (Mathieson and Wail, 1982).

Trampling of vegetation by tourists on foot, on horses, in off-road vehicles, and camping has been documented in many areas. This type of impact has been found in woodlands, grasslands, on cliff tops and on beach dunes (Edwards, 1987; Karan and Mather, 1985). Trampling leads to the destruction of plant life, followed by erosion of paths and sand dune "blow outs" (Edwards, 1987). Several ecological problems, such as the alteration of species composition and changes in ecological succession can occur.

Related to the impacts of tourism on wildlife and plant resources are the effects tourism has had on wetlands and estuaries. In a number of cases wetlands and estuaries havebeen destroyed or damaged due to tourism development. Such areas have been used for access roads, parking lots, airports, resorts, marinas, sewage treatment plants or recreational facilities, for insect control, and other projects (Bacon, 1987). Because wetlands are rich in plant and animal life, not only have the wetlands themselves been destroyed, but so has the habitat.

Soiland beaches. Much of the impact that tourism has on soil and beach resources is related to the impacts previously discussed. Devegetation causes erosion problems both with soils and beaches. Other impacts result from compaction by feet, horses, skis and vehicles. Pollution occurs from oil and lead from car exhaust (Hamele, 1988).

Tourism and recreation adds to impacts on coastal areas already stressed from other types of development, such as oil refining. Negative effects that have occurred include destruction of dunes from excavation, habitat destruction, water pollution and impacts on esthetics (Witt, 1991). Part of the impact tourism has on beach resources is due to the fixed nature of infrastructure and superstructure that must be developed to sustain the industry. Developments cannot adapt to environmental change, and beaches are dynamic resources. To preserve structures from natural beach erosion, seawalls, groynes and other structures have been constructed adding to the impacts on the beaches (May, 1991).

Solid Waste. The tourism industry produces large quantities of waste products. Hotels, airlines, attractions and other related businesses that serve tourists throw away tons of garbage a year. The problem seems to be particularly troublesome in third world countries with less sophisticated solid waste management programs and technologies. Much is dealt with through open air incineration or poorly managed comporting. Exposed waste is not only aesthetically displeasing, but also attracts health hazardous vermin (01okesusi, 1990).

Recyclable and reusable products rather than disposable, and reclamation processes need to be instituted throughout the industry (Wheatcroft, 1991). Some companies have begun to attempt to eliminate waste. For example, USAir recycles aluminum cans, donating proceeds to the Nature Con| servancy and to National Public Radio for environmental education purposes (Wheatcroft, 1991).

A related solid waste problem is the litter often left behind by tourists. Even human waste in areas where toilet facilities are nonexistent is becoming a problem (Boo, 1990).

Aesthetics. In addition to direct effects on natural resources, tourism development can have a negative impact on visual quality. karge buildings that clash with the environment and differing architectural styles cause architectural pollution. This impact is especially noticeable in ribbon or sprawl developments along beaches or scenic byways, which are not only unattractive in themselves, but block the view for others (Witt, 1991).

Other impacts. Other natural resource impacts may also occur as a result of tourism. Noise from planes, cars and tourists themselves (Edwards, 1987; Kara and Mather, 1985); damage to geological formations from trampling or rock climbing, collecting and vandalism; fishing line and other tackle left by anglers (Edwards, 1987); as well as other impacts are associated with the industry.

Environmental Benefits of Tourism

Although tourism has its share of negative environmental consequences, it also has some positive influences on natural resources. Tourism has been the catalyst for preserving natural areas. In numerous instances, parks which conserve natural resources have been extended protected status resulting exclusively from the positive economic benefits of tourism, as these areas serve as major attractions for tourists (Farrell and Runyan, 1991). Some reserves, especially in third world countries, have been able to preserve wildlife that might otherwise have been destroyed (01okesusi, 1990). National parks in numerous countries, including those in east Africa, were developed almost exclusively because they attract international tourists (Boo, 1990).

Plants have also been preserved as a result of tourism. In British Columbia, Douglas Fir forests have been saved from clear cutting because conservation and tourism organizations have been able to demonstrate that the natural forests are more valuable for tourism than for logging (Farrell and Runyon, 1991).

In contrast to the wetland destruction previously mentioned, some such areas have been preserved, along with their life forms, for tourism. Wetlands and estuaries attract many people interested in wildlife observation, nature study and photography, especially birders. Perhaps the most well known protected wetland area is Everglades National Park in Florida (Bacon, 1987).

Alternative Tourism

Tourism can negatively impact the natural resource base of a destination. According to Butler (1990), "Tourism is an industry, a form and agent of development and change. It has to be recognized as such. Controlled and managed properly it can be a non or low consumptive use of resources and can operate on a sustainable basis. However, if developed beyond the capacity of the environment, the resource base, and the local population to sustain it, it ceases to be a renewable resource industry .... "One response to environmentally degrading tourism has been "alternative tourism."

Alternative tourism is essentially the antithesis of undesirable tourism, or mass tourism. Alternative tourism ideally results in less severe impacts while still providing positive economic effects (Butler, 1990). Numerous types of tourism are considered alternative: scientific tourism, biotourism, academic tourism, farm and ranch tourism, nature or environmental tourism, village tourism, special interest tourism and others. One new trend in environmentally responsible, or alternative, tourism development has recently emerged: ecotourism. It is concerned with gaining the economic advantages of tourism development and minimal environmental impact.

Ecotourism aims to protect the natural environment while still encouraging tourism activity. Traditionally, tourism that is environmentally oriented has been called environmental or nature tourism, but ecotourism goes beyond the bounds of nature tourism and specifically focuses on environmental preservation (Farrell and Runyan, 1991). Ecotourism is "an enlightening nature travel experience that contributes to conservation of the ecosystem, while respecting the integrity of the host community" (Wight, 1993). A number of the positive impact examples previously cited are ecotourism: a cooperative association between the environment and tourism.

Although alternative tourism may help reduce some of the negative environmental impact associated with tourism, the potential for resource degradation still exists. "However environmentally sympathetic, every tourist can be damaging to the environment, and few forms of alternative tourism are really amenable to a no-change scenario over time" (Butler, 1990). In some areas alternative tourism may be a viable option to mass tourism. Another option, however, may be no development at all (Butler, 1990).

Implications for Tourism Managers

The dependence the tourism industry has on quality natural resources points to the necessity of environmentally responsible planning and development (Romeril, 1989). Tourism destinations that maintain a quality physical environment will have advantages over areas with resource degradation. It is in the best interest of the industry to preserve and maintain the environment. Tourism development requires environmental alterations; the goal is to avoid negative change (Farfell and Runyon, 1991).

Tourism development is compatible with environmental protection through appropriate planning and careful, controlled development and tourist management. Destinations need to develop appropriate conservation policies and strategies to effectively manage tourism. Tourism managers must consider the needs of an area and its residents, and determine the physical and social carrying capacities of a destination (Butler, 1990).

Legislation and regulation can help control negative impacts. It is possible to regulate development and mandate environmentally pleasing building design. It can also control pollution problems and cleanliness of public areas (Witt, 1991). Laws can be enacted that control certain types of tourist activities, such as over-collecting. In some cases, establishing reserves or protected areas may reduce the negative natural resource impacts of tourism (Salm, 1986).

It is unrealistic to believe that mass tourism can be replaced with low-impact types of tourism. There is a market for mass tourism, and its economic benefits cannot be denied. Alternative tourism can be developed to meet the needs of certain groups of people, allowing them to experience the natural and cultural wealth of regions. It is also useful for modest economic development in rural areas, or in environmentally or socially fragile areas that cannot support major change (Butler, 1990).

Tourism is often chosen as a development option because, relative to other types of development, it is the least harmful to the environment. Although this is frequently true, another option might also be considered; no development at all. Preservation of the existing natural environment must always be considered a viable option (Romeril, 1989).

REFERENCES

Bacon, P.R. (1987). Use of wetlands for tourism in the insular Caribbean. Annals of Tourism Research, 14, 104117.

Boo, E. (1990). Ecotourlsm: The Potentials and Pitfalls, Volume 1. Washington, DC: World Wildlffe Fund.

Butler, R.W. (1990). Alternative tourism: Pious hope or Trojan horse?Journal of Travel Research, 28(3), 40-45.

Edwards, J.R. (1987). The UK heritage coasts: An assessment of the ecological impacts of tourism. Annals of Tourism Research, 14, 71-87.

Farrell, B.H. & McLellan, R.W. (1987). Tourism and physical environment research. Annals of Tourism Research, 14, 1-16.

Farrell, B .H. & Runyan, D. ( 1991 ). Ecology and tourism. Annals of Tourism Research, 18, 26-40.

Gartner, W.C. (1987). Environmental impacts of recreational home developments. Annals of Tourism Research, 14, 38-57.

Goldman, C,R. (1989). Lake Tahoe: Preserving a fragile ecosystem. Environment, 31(7), 6-30.

Green, H., Hunter, C., & Moore, B. (1990). Assessing the environmental impact of tourism development-- use of the Delphi technique. Tourism Management, 11, 111-120.

Hamele, H. (1988). Leisure in nature: A major impact, Naturopa, 59, 5-7.

Karan, P.P, & C. Mather, (1985), Tourism and environment in the Mount Everest Region. Geographical Review, 75, 93-95.

Kovacs, K.M. & Innes, S. (1990). The impact of tourism on Harp Seals (Phoca groenlandica) in the Gulf of St. lawrence, Canada. Applied Animal Behavior Science, 26, 15-26.

Martinez-Taberner, A., Moya, G., Ramon, G. & Forteza, V, (1990). The Albufera of Majorca, Balearci Islands. Ambio, 19 (1), 21-27.

Mathieson, A. & Wall, G. (1982). Tourism: Economic, Physical and Social Impacts. New York: Longman.

May, V. (1991). Tourism, environment and development--values, sustainability and stewardship. Tourism Management, 12, 112-118.

Miller, M.L. (1987). Tourism in Washington's coastal zone. Annals of Tourism Research, 14, 58-70.

Olokesusi, F. (1990), Assessment of the Yankari Game Reserve, Nigeria. Tourism Management, 11, 153-162.

Rodriguez, S. (1987). The impact of the ski industry on the Rio Hondo watershed. Annals of Tourism Research, 14, 88-103.

Romeril, M. (1989). Tourism and the environment--accord or discord? Tourism Management, 10, 204-208,

Salm, RN, (1986). Coral reefs and tourist carrying capacity: The Indian Ocean experience. Industry and Environment, 9, 11-14.

Simmons, P. (1988). Apres ski le deluge. New Scientist, 14(1), 49-52.

Wheatcroft, S. (1991), Airlines, tourism and the environment. Tourism Management, 12, 119-124.

Wight, P. (1993). Ecotourism: Ethics of eco-sell? Journal of Travel Research. 31(3), 3-9.

Wilkinson, P.F. (1989). Strategies for tourism in island microstates. Annals of Tourism Research, 16, 153-177.

Witt, S.F. (1991). Tourism in Cyprus. Tourism Management, 12, 37-46.

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