标题：The fuel economy of mountain villages in Ishkamish and Burka (Northeast Afghanistan). Rural subsistence and urban marketing patterns.(Amu Darya Project Working Paper No. 9, 2010)
摘要：Afghanistan is a resource-scarce country. Its remaining forests and open woodlands are currently threatened by extinction. While it is believed that closed forests once covered about 5% of the country, less than 0,5% of its territory is verified to have been covered by forests before the outbreak of violent conflict in 1978. Of this area more than half has been lost during the subsequent decades of war until today. Similarly, open woodlands decreased from originally assumed 38% to 13% in the late 1970s to 5% in 2009 (GoA 2009, 4-5). Forests and woodlands are not only significant given the Afghan population’s extraordinary high resource dependence (UNEP 2003, 15), but possess strategic importance for agriculture and food security at large as they contribute to river basin’s upper catchment protection through soil and water conservation. This paper is an attempt at understanding the long-term patterns, extents and underlying motives of deforestation of woodlands and biomass removal for fuel purposes in two rural districts – Ishkamish and Burka – of Northeast Afghanistan, which form part of the upper catchment of the Kunduz river basin. The research departs from the popular hunch that deforestation is causally linked with the fuel needs of the urban populations in the provincial centers of Kunduz, Baghlan and Takhar province. However, the analysis of the change of fuel use over time as well as late marketing patterns of fuel show that the initial hypothesis has to be rejected. On the contrary, the results show that the fuel economy is largely localized and linked to rural subsistence needs for fuel and income generation in the first place. Given these findings that rural livelihood security in both districts is currently a more significant driver for local deforestation than fuel trade or demands for timber, intervention strategies are advised to focus on livelihood support, alternative rural energy schemes and successive reforestation in the rural areas (5.3). Based on extensive field research and recurrent visits to the districts as well as a market study in the main urban centers of three provinces between autumn 2007 and 2010, this paper achieved to quantify the amount of fuel collected and used for different purposes by households distinguished into three income groups. Moreover, an overview of fuel composition, an inventory of the species used and respective changes for fuel wood usage over a period of more than 30 years from the 1970s until 2007 is provided. Additional qualitative enquiries shed light on aspects of marketing, legal frameworks and local people’s attitudes towards fuel usage. It can be concluded that there has been a dramatic change in biomass composition of fuel wood between 1977 and 2007. This is evidenced by the changes in time taken to reach important fuel species. The use of Bashal (Judas tree/Red Bud), Matraq, Badam-e kohi (Wild almond), Archah (Juniper), Irghai and Zarang as fuel species declined significantly (in that order from greatest to lowest decline). In some sites at local scale the stocks of these species have been entirely depleted already. Of the remaining wood fuels Archah is the most commonly used tree for fuel overall and the amount used is almost eight times as the next most commonly used trees – Irghai and Matraq. As a result there has been a shift towards the use of animal manure and Poosh (Artemisia), a shrub which is similarly threatened by nearfuture extinction as Archah because it is lately being torn out with its entire rootstocks. The amounts being withdrawn annually are alarming: The average amount of trees used per household per year is 7,8 tonnes. Hence a typical village of 200 households would remove around 1.570 tonnes per year. This is equivalent to around 2.500m³ and over 1.000 trees with an average volume of 2,5m³. Over 80% of households use some form of bush for fuel in addition to trees. The average annual use is 7,8 tonnes. Two thirds of the bushes used is Poosh (Artemisia). The average use of Artemisia is 4,87t per household, equivalent to around 5.000 plants per household per year. As these plants are uprooted the damage to the environment is permanent. The use of all trees and bushes combined ranges from around 9 to 20t per year per household with an average of 15,6t per year. Almost all households use some form of manure, the average use of which amounts to 7,1t per household annually. With animal manure included, the average amount of biomass used by each household for fuel is 22,8t (about seven donkey loads a week or a donkey load per day). On average, use of manure, trees and bushes was almost equally divided.
