摘要：Adaptation and mitigation to global as well as localenvironmental problems calls for the transformationof many contemporary and unsustainablegovernance approaches. For much of humanhistory, natural resource governance centered onefforts to control nature to harvest products from it,while reducing risks to society. The central tenetwas to achieve predictable outcomes, a strategy thatalmost invariably led to reduced biological diversityand a reduction of the range of variation in naturalsystems. However, reduced diversity in turn tendedto create more sensitive systems, both ecologicaland social (Levin 1999 among others). From the1970s and onward (Holling 1973, 1978), the notionthat such attempts to control highly complex andnonlinear systems invariably leads to surprises and/or societal and environmental crises gainedincreasing momentum (Holling and Meffe 1996).On the basis of these arguments, conventionalcommand-and-control resource management becameheavily criticized (Holling and Meffe 1996,Wondolleck and Yaffee 2000, Folke et al. 2005,among many others) and several approaches havebeen proposed to overcome its limitations. Theseinclude, among others, adaptive management (e.g.,Holling 1978), cooperative management (e.g.,Pinkerton 1989, Jentoft 2000), collaborativemanagement (Borrini-Feyerabend and Borrini1996, Wondolleck and Yaffee 2000), adaptivecomanagement (Ruitenbeek and Cartier 2001,Olsson et al. 2004), and adaptive governance (Folkeet al. 2005).
关键词：governance; natural resources; social network analysis; social relations; structure
