摘要：Cash crops are developing in the once forested areas of Indonesia in parallel with marketand economic improvements. Perennial crops such as coffee, cocoa, and rubber were first planted in estatesby private or public companies. Local people then integrated these crops into their farming systems, oftenthrough the planting of agroforests, that is, intercropping the new cash crop with upland rice and food crops.The crop was generally mixed with fruit trees, timber, and other useful plants. A geographic specializationoccurred, driven by biophysical constraints and market opportunities, with expansion of cocoa in Sulawesi,coffee in Lampung, and natural rubber in eastern Sumatra. However, during the past three decades, theseagroforests have increasingly been converted into more productive monoculture plantations. A commontrajectory can be observed in agricultural landscapes dominated by a perennial cash crop: from ladang toagroforests, and then to monoculture plantations. This process combines agricultural expansion at theexpense of natural forests and specialization of the land cover at the expense of biodiversity and wildlifehabitats. We determined the main drivers of agricultural expansion and intensification in three regions ofIndonesia based on perception surveys and land use profitability analysis. When the national andinternational contexts clearly influence farmers' decisions, local people appear very responsive to economicopportunities. They do not hesitate to change their livelihood system if it can increase their income. Theircultural or sentimental attachment to the forest is not sufficient to prevent forest conversion
